Biol 320 Final Exam

Front 1

tunics of testes (2)

Back 1

1. tunica vaginalis
2. tunica albuginea

Front 2

blood supply of testes (3)

Back 2

1. testicular arteries
2. paminiform plexus
3. spermatic cord

Front 3

seminifierous tubules

Back 3

make up lobules in testes

produce sperm

Front 4

pathway of sperm in testes (5)

Back 4

1. seminiferous tubules
2. tubulus rectus
3. rete testis
4. efferent ductules
5. epididymis

Front 5

stereocilia

Back 5

non-motile projections in epididymis containing cytoplasm

functions:
1. absorb testicular fluid
2. provide nutrients to sperm

Front 6

pathway of sperm in epididymis (5)

Back 6

1. efferent ductules
2. head of epididymis
3. body of epididymis
4. tail of epididymis
5. vas deferens

Front 7

scrotum

Back 7

sac of skin and fascia at root of penis containing testicles

function: keeps testes 3 degrees cooler than body temp (for better sperm production)

Front 8

muscles of scrotum (2)

Back 8

1. dartos muscle - smooth; wrinkle scrotal skin

2. cremaster muscle - skeletal; elevate testes

Front 9

regions of urethra (3)

Back 9

1. prostatic urethra - surrounded by prostate

2. membranous urethra - w/i urogenital diaphragm

3. spongy urethra - throughout penis

Front 10

accessory glands of male reproductive system (3)

Back 10

1. seminal vesicle - secretes 60% of volume of semen

2. prostate gland - 33% of volume of semen; fluid slightly acidic and milky; role in sperm activation

3. bulbourethral gland - produces thick clear mucus that neutralizes traces of urine acidity

Front 11

semen

Back 11

viscous alkaline mixture of sperm and seminal secretions

contains: fructose, ascorbic acid, coagulating enzyme, prostaglandins

Front 12

overall function of male accessory glands

Back 12

empty secretions into ducts during ejaculation

Front 13

penis - fxn

Back 13

deliver sperm into female reproductive system

Front 14

internal penis

Back 14

urethra + 3 bodies of erectile tissue

Front 15

erectile tissue of penis

Back 15

spongy network of CT and smooth muscle with vascular spaces

Front 16

corpora cavernosum

Back 16

paired bodies of erectile tissue on dorsal side of penis

bound by fibrous tunica albuginea

crura (sing. crus) = proximal end that anchors penis to pubic arch

Front 17

crura (singular - crus)

Back 17

proximal end of corpora cavernosum in penis

anchors penis to pubic arch

Front 18

corpus spongiosum

Back 18

penile tissue surrounding urethra

proximal enlargement = bulb

distal enlargement = glans

Front 19

male erection - definition, initiated by...

Back 19

enlargement/stiffening of penis from engorgement of erectile tissue with blood

stimulated by P-ANS; sexual stimula, emotion/higher mental activity

Front 20

mechanism of male erection (4)

Back 20

1. P-ANS stimulation --> release of NO
2. NO --> relaxation of sm. muscle --> vasodilation of penile arterioles --> erectile tissues fill with blood
3. expansion of corpus cavernosa inhibits blood flow and maintains engorgement
4. corpus spongiosum keeps urethra open during ejaculation

Front 21

ejaculation - definition, stmulated by...

Back 21

propulsion of semen from male duct system

stimulated by S-ANS

Front 22

mechanism of ejaculation (5)

Back 22

1. erection impulses reach critical point --> S-ANS stimulation
2. bladder sphincter contracts (inhibits urine flow)
3. reprod. ducts and accessory glands constrict (empty contents into urethra)
4. bulbospongiosus muscles contract
5. semen expelled from urethra

Front 23

systemic effects of ejaculation (4)

Back 23

1. muscle contraction
2. increased HR
3. increased BP
4. feeling of intense pleasure

Front 24

stages of spermatogenesis (5)

Back 24

1. spermatagonium stem cell (2n) --[mitosis]--> daughter cell type A (2n) + daughter cell type B (2n)

2. growth of type B cell

3. type B cell (2n) --[meiosis I]--> spermatocyte (n)

4. secondary spermatocytes (n) --[meiosis II]--> early/late spermatids

5. late spermatids --[spermiogenesis]--> spermatozoa

Front 25

sertoli (sustentacular) cells

Back 25

non-replicating, supporting cells in epididymis

divide seminiferous tubules into 2 compartments (basal and adluminal)

Front 26

basal compartment

Back 26

compartment of seminiferous tubules of testes

contains:
1. spermatagonia
2. primary spermatocytes

Front 27

adluminar compartment activities (5)

Back 27

compartment of seminiferous tubules

1. deliver nutrients to dividing cells
2. move spermatocytes/spermatids along lumen
3. secrete testicular fluid (transport medium for sperm)
4. dispose of excess cytoplasm
5. produce chemical mediators that regulate spermatogenesis

Front 28

blood-testis barrier

Back 28

formed by tight junctions of sustentacular cells

prevents sperm antigens from escaping through basal lamina into blood

Front 29

testosterone:
1. synthesized from?
2. functions (2)
3. target organs/organs where transformation occurs

Back 29

synthesized from cholesterol

functions:
1. stimulating spermatogenesis
2. development of secondary sex characteristics

target organs = all accessory organs

in prostate: --> dihydrotestosterone (binds w/ nucleus)

in neurons: --> estrogen (for stimulation)

Front 30

gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)

Back 30

secreted from hypothalamus

stimulates anterior pituitary gland to secrete luteinizing hormone (LH) and follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

Front 31

follicle stimulating hormone (FSH)

Back 31

secreted from anterior pituitary in response to GnRH

binds to receptors on sertoli cells of seminiferous tubules

stimulates:
growth and metabolic activity
secretion of androgen-binding protein (ABP) from sustentacular cells --> enhances spermatogenesis

Front 32

luteinizing hormone (LH)

Back 32

secreted from anterior pituitary in response to GnRH

stimulates interstitial (Leydig) cells to release testosterone

Front 33

androgen-binding protein (ABP)

Back 33

secreted from sustentacular cells in seminiferous tubules in response to binding of FSH (from anterior pituitary)

ABP binding of testosterone enhances spermatogenesis

Front 34

hormones that regulate amount of testosterone/sperm produced by testes (3)

Back 34

1. GnRH - stimulates testes indirectly
2. gonadotropins - directly stimulate testes (LH and FSH)
3. testicular hormones (inhibin and testosterone) - neg. feedback on AP and hypothalamus

Front 35

male secondary sex characteristics (5)

Back 35

stimulated by testosterone

1. pubic/axillary/facial hair
2. deepening of voice
3. skin thickens, becomes oily
4. bones grow, more dense
5. incr mass/size of sk. muscle

Front 36

problems with exogenous testosterone (4)

Back 36

1. testicular atrophy (negative feedback on LH)
2. feminizing effects (can be converted to estrogen)
3. liver damage/cancer (activates gene transcription)
4. psychological effects

Front 37

primary functions of ovaries (2)

Back 37

1. make female gametes
2. secrete estrogen and progesterone

Front 38

ovarian ligaments

Back 38

anchor ovary to uterus

Front 39

broad ligament

Back 39

contain suspensory ligaments and mesovarium of ovaries

Front 40

suspensory ligaments

Back 40

anchor ovary to pelvic wall

Front 41

mesovarium

Back 41

suspend ovary in between uterus and pelvic wall

Front 42

blood supply of ovaries (2)

Back 42

1. ovarian arteries
2. ovarian branch of uterine artery

Front 43

layers surrounding ovaries (2)

Back 43

1. germinal epithelium (outer)
2. tunica albuginea

Front 44

follicle cells

Back 44

cells surrounding oocyte that are one-cell layer thick

Front 45

granulosa cells

Back 45

cells surrounding oocyte that are two or more layers thick

Front 46

primordial follicle

Back 46

one layer of squamous-like follicle surrounds oocyte

Front 47

primary follicle

Back 47

2+ layers of cuboidal granulosa cells enclose oocyte

Front 48

secondary follicle

Back 48

has fluid-filled space between granulosa cells that coalesces to form central antrum

Front 49

graafian follicle

Back 49

secondary follicle at its most mature stage; bulges from surface of ovary

Front 50

ovulation

Back 50

ejection of oocyte from ripening follicle

Front 51

corpus luteum

Back 51

ruptured follicle after ovulation

provides secretions of testosterone and estrogen; replaced by placenta during pregnancy

Front 52

uterine tubes - functions (2)

Back 52

1. receive ovulated oocyte
2. provide site for fertilization

Front 53

fimbrae

Back 53

flingerlike projections at ends on ciliated infundibulum of uterine tubes (ampulla end)

beating cilia on fimbrae create current that carries ovulated oocyte from peritoneal cavity into uterine tubes

Front 54

isthmus

Back 54

portion of uterine tube connected to uterus

Front 55

ampulla

Back 55

portion of uterine tube expanding distally around ovaries; lead into ciliated infundibulum with fimbrae

Front 56

nonciliated cells of uterine tube

Back 56

keep oocyte and sperm nourished and moist

Front 57

mesosalpinx

Back 57

visceral peritoneum that supports uterine tubes

Front 58

regions of uterine tubes (4)

Back 58

1. isthmus (connect to uterus)
2. ampulla (distal ends that wrap around ovaries)
3. infundibulum (ciliated)
4. fimbrae (projections)

Front 59

regions of uterus (3)

Back 59

1. fundus (superior)
2. body (middle)
3. isthmus (inferior)

Front 60

cervical glands

Back 60

secrete mucus that covers external os ("mouth") of cervix and blocks sperm entry except during mid-cycle

Front 61

supports of uterus (4)

Back 61

1. mesometrium
2. lateral cervical ligaments
3. uterosacral ligaments
4. round ligaments

Front 62

mesometrium

Back 62

portion of broad ligament that supports the uterus laterally

Front 63

lateral cervical ligaments

Back 63

connects cervix and superior vagina to cervical to pelvic walls (laterally)

Front 64

uterosacral ligaments

Back 64

paired ligaments connecting uterus to sacrum

Front 65

round ligaments

Back 65

connect anterior wall of uterus to labia majora

Front 66

layers of uterine wall (3)

Back 66

1. perimetrium (visceral peritoneum)
2. myometrium (sm. muscle)
3. endometrium (mucosal lining)

Front 67

uterine vascular supply (3)

Back 67

1. uterine arteries
2. arcuate arteries
3. radial branches

Front 68

uterine arteries

Back 68

ascend from internal iliac arteries and branch into uterine walls

Front 69

arcuate arteries

Back 69

branches of uterine arteries in myometrium

give rise to radial branches

Front 70

radial branches

Back 70

branches of arcuate arteries (from uterine arteries)

give rise to:
spiral arteries --> stratum functionalis
straight arteries --> stratum basalis

Front 71

layers of endometrium (2)

Back 71

1. stratum functionalis
2. stratum basalis

Front 72

stratum functionalis

Back 72

innermost layer of endometrium (in uterine walls)

undergoes cyclic changes in response to ovarian hormones

shed during menstruation (degeneration/regeneration of spiral arteries)

vascular supply = spiral arteries of radial branches

Front 73

stratum basalis

Back 73

outer layer of endometrium (of uterus)

forms a new functionalis after menstruation ends

does not respond to ovarian hormones

vascular supply = straight arteries of radial branches

Front 74

layers of vaginal walls (3)

Back 74

1. adventitia (fibroelastic)
2. muscularis (sm. muscle)
3. mucosa (stratified squamous)

Front 75

hymen

Back 75

incomplete partition formed by mucosal layer near vaginal orifice

Front 76

vaginal fornix

Back 76

upper end of vagina surrounding inferior cervix

Front 77

components of vulva (5)

Back 77

external female genitalia

consists of:
1. mons pubis
2. labia (major and minor)
3. greater vestibular glands
4. clitoris
5. perineum

Front 78

mons pubis

Back 78

round, fatty area of female vulva overlying pubic symphysis

Front 79

labia majora

Back 79

elongated, hair-covered, fatty skin folds of female vulva

homologous to male scrotum

Front 80

labia minora

Back 80

hair-free skin folds lying within labia majora

homologous to male ventral penis

Front 81

greater vestibular glands

Back 81

pea-size glands bordering vagina; keep vestibule moist and lubricated

homologous to male bulbourethral glands

Front 82

clitoris

Back 82

erectile tissue of female vulva hooded by prepuce

homologous to penis

Front 83

female perineum

Back 83

diamond-shaped region of vulva between pubic arch and coccyx

bordered laterally by ischial tuberosities

Front 84

oogenesis - definition

Back 84

production of female sex cells by meiosis

Front 85

oogenesis - in fetal period (3)

Back 85

**ovary inactive

1. oogonia (2n) multiply by meiosis - store nutrients

2. oogonia --> primary oocytes (primordial follicles appear)

3. primary oocytes --> meiosis (stall in prophase I)

Front 86

oogenesis - at/after puberty (3)

Back 86

**ovaries active

1. activated primary oocyte --> first polar body + secondary oocyte

2. secondary oocyte --> stops in metaphase II (ovulated)

3. if penetrated by sperm: secondary oocyte completes meiosis II --> large ovum (fxnl gamete) + second polar body

Front 87

ovarian cycle - definition, phases (3)

Back 87

monthly cycle of events associated with egg maturation

1. follicular phase (days 1-14)
2. ovulation (midcycle)
3. luteal phase (days 14-28)

Front 88

follicular phase (2 steps)

Back 88

days 1-14 of ovarian cycle; period of follicle growth

1. primary follicle --> secondary follicle
a) theca and granulosa cells --> estrogens
b) zona pellucida forms
c) antrum forms

2. secondary follicle --> vesicular follicle
a) antrum expands (isolates oocyte and corona radiata)
b) vesicular follicle bulges from ext surface of ovary
c)primary oocyte completes meiosis I

Front 89

ovulation (2 steps)

Back 89

occurs midway through ovarian cycle

1. ovary wall ruptures
2. secondary oocyte expeled into peritoneal cavity

Front 90

luteal phase

Back 90

days 14-28 of ovarian cycle

1. ruptured follicle collapses, granulosa cells enlarge and form corpus luteum with theca cells

2. corpus luteum secretes estrogen and progesterone

3.
a) no pregnancy: CL degenerates after 10 days --> corpus albicans (scar)
b) pregnancy: CL continues to produce hormones until replaced by placenta (3rd month)

Front 91

menarche

Back 91

first menstrual cycle in female humans

occurs at puberty

Front 92

hormone interactions of ovarian cycle (8)

Back 92

1. GnRH STIMULATES release of LH and FSH from HT (day 1)

2. FSH and LH STIMULATE follicle growth

3. small rise in estrogen levels/rise in inhibin levels INHIBIT FSH/LH release (neg. feedback)

4. critical blood concentrations of estrogen STIMULATE ant. pituitary and brain (positive feedback)

5. high estrogen levels STIMULATE burst of accumulated LH

6. burst of LH STIMULATES development of second follicle (continues to metaphase II) and ovulation (day 14)

7. LH surge STIMULATES transformation of ruptured follicle --> CL (prog/estrog secretion)

8. rising progesterone/estrogen/inhibin levels INHIBIT anterior pituitary

Front 93

uterine (menstrual cycle) - definition, phases (3)

Back 93

cyclic changes uterine endometrium undergoes in response to ovarian hormones in blood

1. menstrual phase (days 1-5)
2. proliferative phase (days 6-14)
3. secretory phase (days 15-28)

Front 94

menstrual phase of uterine cycle

Back 94

days 1-5

uterus sheds all but deepest part of endometrium (stratum basalis)

Front 95

proliferative phase of menstrual cycle

Back 95

days 6-14

endometrium rebuilds itself (stratum basalis forms new stratum functionalis)

Front 96

secretory phase of uterine cycle

Back 96

days 15-28

endometrium prepares for implantation of the embryo

if fertilization doesn't occur:
1. progesterone levels decrease
2. spiral arteries kink/spasm; endometrial cells die
3. stratum functionalis of endometrieum begins digesting itself
4. spiral arteries constrict and then relax and open wide
5. blood gushes into weakened capillaries, they fragment, stratum functionalis sloughs off

Front 97

extrauterine effects of estrogens (5)

Back 97

1. promote oogenesis and follicle growth (ovary)

*anabolic effects of female reprod. tract
2. uterine tubes/uterus/vagina - grow and become functional

3. uterine tubes/uterus - enhanced motility

4. vagina mucosa thickens

5. external genitalia matures

Front 98

secondary sex characteristics induced by estrogen (4)

Back 98

1. breast growth

2. increased subcutaneous fat deposits (esp in hips/breasts)

3. widening/lightening of pelvis

4. growth of axillary/pubic hair

Front 99

events of female sexual response (4)

Back 99

1. clitoris, vaginal mucosa, and breasts engorge with blood

2. nipples erect

3. increased activity of vestibular glands (lubricate vestibule/facilitate entry of penis)

4. orgasm

Front 100

vestibular glands of female reproductive system

Back 100

during sexual excitement:

increase secretory activity to lubricate vestibule and facilitate entrance of penis

Front 101

female orgasm

Back 101

4th event of female sexual response

accompanied by:
1. muscular tension
2. increased HR/BP
3. rhythmical uterine contractions

different from males:
1. NO refractory period (can have multiple orgasms)
2. orgasm NOT essential for conception

Front 102

"window of opportunity" for fertilization of gametes

Back 102

secondary oocyte: 12-24 hrs after ovulation

sperm: 24-72 hrs after ejaculation

fertilization can only occur
1. 3 days before ovulation
2. 24 hrs after ovulation

Front 103

layers encapsulating ovulated oocyte (2)

Back 103

1. corona radiata (outer)

2. zona pellucida

Front 104

fates of ejaculated sperm (6)

Back 104

1. leak out of vaginal orifice
2. destroyed by acidic vagina
3. fail to make it through female cervix
4. dispersed in uterine cavity
5. destroyed by phagocytes in uterus
6. reach uterine tubes

Front 105

capacitance

Back 105

gradual weakening of sperm head plasma membrane to facilitate entrance of sperm by releasing acrosomal enzymes

Front 106

sperm penetration of oocyte membrane (2)

Back 106

1. beta-proteins bind sperm to receptors on oocyte membrane

2. alpha-proteins cause sperm to insert oocyte membrane

Front 107

blocks to polyspermy (2)

Back 107

1. fast block (Na channel) - membrane depolarization prevents other sperm from fusing with oocyte membrane

2. slow block (Ca) - cortical granules release enzymes that destroy sperm receptors (cause already bound sperm to detach)

Front 108

pre-embryonic development (5 stages)

Back 108

in uterine tubes:
1. zygote
2. 4-cell stage (2 days)
3. morula (16+ cells; 3 days)

in uterus:
4. early blastocyte (degenerating zona pellucida; 4 days)
5. implaning blastocyte (inner cell mass; 6 days)

Front 109

implantation of zygote

Back 109

cell takes 3-4 days to travel thru uterine tube; floats freely in uterus for 2-3 days

1. trophoblasts of blastocyte release enzymes that digest endometrial surface

2. endometrium grows over blastocytes and provides nutrients for first 2 months

Front 110

human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG)

Back 110

secreted by chorion; production highest around 8th week of gestation

causes corpus luteum to remain at beginning of pregnancy and continue to secrete hormones until replaced by placenta

Front 111

chorion

Back 111

fetal membrane that develops from trophoblasts

secretes HCG that maintains corpus luteum

involved in formation of placenta

Front 112

layers formed during trophoblast proliferation (2)

Back 112

1. synctiotrophoblast (outer) - cell boundaries disappear

2. cytotrophoblast (inner) - retain cell boundaries

Front 113

chorionic villi (3)

Back 113

formed from chorions during placentation

1. become vascularized
2. form capillary beds from umbilical arteries and veins
3. surrounded by maternal blood

Front 114

placenta forms from... (2)

Back 114

1. embryonic trophoblastic tissues

2. maternal endometrial tissues

Front 115

placental hormones (5)

Back 115

1. progesterone
2. estrogen
3. human placental lactogen
4. human chorionic thyrotropin
5. relaxin

Front 116

embryonic membranes (4)

Back 116

1. amnion
2. yolk sac
3. allantois
4. chorion

Front 117

amnion - definition, origin/later source of amniotic fluid

Back 117

formed from epiblast layer of embryotic disc

origin = fetal blood

later source = fetal urine

Front 118

amnion - functions (4)

Back 118

1. protective buoyant environment

2. helps maintain homeostatic temperature

3. prevents fusion of embryotic parts

4. allows for embryotic movement

Front 119

yolk sac - definition, functions (3)

Back 119

sac formed from endorm cells of embryonic disc

eventually extends into umbilical cord

1. forms part of GI tube
2. produces earliest blood cells and vessels
3. source of primordial germ cells

Front 120

allantois

Back 120

outpocketing formed from endoderm

structural base for umbilical cord

becomes part of urinary bladder

Front 121

chorion

Back 121

outermost layer of embryonic membrane formed from trophoblasts and mesoderm

forms fetal portion of placenta

Front 122

breast cancer - arises from what cells? risk factors (6)

Back 122

1. early onset of menses
2. late menopause
3. no pregnancies
4. first pregnancy late in life and little/no breast feeding
5. previous/family history of breast cancer
6. mutations to BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes

Front 123

testicular cancer

Back 123

most common in men ages 15-35

risk factors:
1. **cryptorchidism (non-descent of testes)
2. history of mumps or orchitis
3. maternal exposure to

Front 124

treatment of breast cancer (3)

Back 124

1. radiation
2. chemotherapy
3. surgery (lumpectomy) followed by irradiation and chemotherapy

Front 125

prostate gland conditions (3)

Back 125

1. benign prostatic hyperplasia (atrophy)

2. prostatitis (inflammation)

3. prostate cancer

Front 126

benign prostatic hyperplasia

Back 126

hypertrophy of prostate glands

occurs in almost every elderly male

urethra becomes distorted from enlarged prostate; blockage of urinary tract can lead to bladder infections or kidney damage

Tx: microwaves, drugs, catheters

Front 127

erectile dysfunction

Back 127

inability in males to attain erection

cause = deficient release of NO by P-ANS

affects 50% americans > 40 yo

causes of temporary ED: mental factors, EtOH, drugs

causes of chronic ED: hormonal (DM), vascular (arteriosclerosis, varicose veins), and NS factors

Front 128

causes of chronic erectile dysfunction (3)

Back 128

1. hormonal (DM)

2. vascular (arteriosclerosis, varicose veins)

3. NS problems (stroke, penile nerve damage, MS)

Front 129

pelvic inflammatory disease

Back 129

infection of pelvic organs of female reproductive tract (uterine tubes and uterus)

caused by bacteria traveling through vagina to uterus or by bloodstream

untreated cases can result in sterility

Tx: antibiotics

Front 130

endometriosis

Back 130

endometrial tissue develops in locations outside uterus (common site = ovaries)

during menstruation: blood collects in tissues (cannot drain like in uterus) --> pain, irregular bleeding

can lead to infertility

Front 131

prolapse of uterus

Back 131

tip of cervix protruding through external vaginal opening

cause = stretching and tearing of muscles that support uterus (urogenital and pelvic diaphragm muscles); can occur after pregnancy

Front 132

cervical dysplasia

Back 132

abnormal growth of cells on cervical lining; precancerous condition

risk factors: advanced age, infection, HPV

Tx: cryosurgery, laser vaporization, electrocautery