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211 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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three types of asexual reproduction
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fission, budding, fragmentation
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reproduction by growing a smaller organism on the parent and then releasing it
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budding
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reproduction by dividing the parent organism into equal sized parts
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fission
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reproduction by small pieces separating from parent and producing new offspring
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fragmentation
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reproduction by which an egg may or may not need to be fertilized
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parthenogenesis
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fluid contained sac that holds egg
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follicle
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egg is fertilized outside uterus
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ectopic pregnancy
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thick lining necessary to support pregnancy in uterus
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endometrium
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protects fetus from outside invaders
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cervix
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site of sperm storage and maturation, where sperm become motile
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epididymis
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transports sperm during ejaculation
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vas deferens
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where sperm are made
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testes
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these secrete much of the liquid in semen, including mucus, fructose, coagulating enzymes and prostaglandins
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seminal vesicles
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secretes milky fluid to uncoagulate sperm
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prostate gland
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secretes fluid to neutralize any acidic urine in urethra prior to ejaculation
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bulbourethral glands
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spermatogenesis cytokinesis produces:
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4 spermatids
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oogenesis cytokinesis produces:
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1 large egg and several small polar bodies
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spermatogenesis vs oogenesis, interruptions?
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spermatogenesis is uninterupted, oogenesis arrested at various stages with long "rest" periods
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divide mitotically to give rise to primary spermatocytes
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spermatogonia
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complete meiosis and give rise to 4 haploid spermatids
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spermatocytes
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three parts of sperm
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head (dna)
midpiece (rotor to drive tail) tail (allows to swim) |
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divide by meitosis to continually renew population of sperm
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spermatogonial stem cells
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GnRH
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gonadotropin-releasing hormone
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GnRH secreted from
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hypothalamus
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GnRH directs release of
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FSH
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FSH and LH secreted from
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anterior pituitary
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activated by FSH, cells that produce inhibin and nourish developing sperm
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sertoli cells
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activated by LH, these cells secrete testosterone, give negative feedback to hypothalamus and pituitary, promote male secondary characteristics and spermatogenesis
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leydig cells
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meiosis of egg completed when
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sperm penetrates the egg
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this process disolves the jelly coat around an egg
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acrosomal process
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fast block to polyspermy
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sperm and egg fuse, ion channels open, na flows into egg, changes membrane potential, depolarizing egg
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cortical reaction
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ca released from ER, cortical granules fuse with plasma membrane, release molecules into perivitelline space, enzymes degrade adhesion proteins and clip off sperm receptors, vitelline layer expands out
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slow block to polyspermy
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vitelline layer becomes fertilization envelope; resists entry of additional sperm
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no fast block to polyspermy in mammals, but they do have:
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cortical reaction which hardens the zona pellucida, and destroys sperm receptors
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ball of cells with cavity
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blastocyst
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rapid cell divisions with no cell growth
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cleavage
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cluster of cells at 3 days
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morula
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when blastocyst arrives in uterus it must:
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hatch from zona pellucida, inner cell mass develops into embryo proper and is the source of embryonic stem cells
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cells that form the outer layer of the blastocyst, secretes enzymes that break down the endometrium
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trophoblast
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upper layer formed from the flat disk of the inner cell mass of the blastocyst
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epiblast
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lower layer formed from the flat disk of the inner cell mass of the blastocyst
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hypoblast
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blastocyst surrounded by maternal cells after how long?
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13 days after fertilization
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pole where the yolk is most concentrated
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vegetal pole
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pole opposite vegetal pole
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animal pole
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pole that determines anterior axis
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animal pole
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pole that determines posterior axis
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vegetal pole
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grey crescent occurs where?
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side opposite sperm entry
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establishes dorsal/ventral axis
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cortical rotation
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grey crescent marks which side of embryo?
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dorsal side
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first cleavage is where?
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through gray crescent
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this is very abundant in chick embryo
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yolk
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in chick embryo cleavage furrow cannot pass through this
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yolk
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this cleavage occurs in chick embryo
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meroblastic meaning partial cleavage, does not pass through yolk
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ectoderm gives rise to
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skin and nervous system
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endoderm gives rise to
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GI tract, respiratory tract, liver and pancreas
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mesoderm gives rise to
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muscles, reproductive system, bones, circulatory system, stomach and intestines
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primitive gut
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archenteron
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open end of archenteron becomes anus
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blastopore
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this stage is the start of when they are highly sensitive to teratogens
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gastrulation
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dorsal mesoderm in frogs forms this
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notochord
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dorsal ectoderm in frogs forms this
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neural plate
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process by which three embryonic germ layers form rudiments of all organs
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organogenesis
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these cells migrate widely to various locations in the body
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neural crest cells
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why melanoma have high metastasis rate?
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comes from neural crest cells which move a lot
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blocks of mesodermal cells
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somites
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give rise to much of axial skeleton and associated muscles, vertebral column and ribs
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somites
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disease; affects peripheral nervous system particularly digestive system, causes facial abnormalities, deafness, lave of pigmentation
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waardenburg, caused by neural crest migration disorders
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somites come from what germ layer
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mesoderm
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group that occurs in a fluid filled sac, being an egg or uterus
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amniotes
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extraembryonic membrane in mammals: surrounds embryo and other membranes, gas exchange, its cavity eventually disappears as amniotic cavity expands
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chorion
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extraembryonic membrane in mammals: encloses embryo in fluid filled sac, cushions and protects from dehydration
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amnion
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extraembryonic membrane in mammals: early formation of blood cells, forms part of gut, soruce of primordial germ cells that migrate to seed the gonads
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yolk sac
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extraembryonic membrane in mammals: part of umbilical cord, ultimately disappears in humans
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allantois
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three ways to get monozygotic twins
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1. split before trophoblast forms (<5 days)
2. split at early blastocyst stage(5-9 days) 3. split at bilaminar germ stage |
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period of organogenesis in humans
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3-8 weeks from fertilization
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central nervous system is sensitive to teratogens when?
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entire pregnancy, which is the longest of all systems
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this drug alleviated morning sickness, interfered with limb bud development, now has great promises for multiple diseases
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thalidomide
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high concentration of what protein causes formation of ventral structures
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BMP-4
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what it is called when cells have influence over the fate of other cells
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induction
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this organizer secretes signal proteins in the fibroblast growth factor family, promotes growth proximal-distal
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aer, apical ectodermal ridge
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organizer that secretes SHH, pattern formation anterior-posterior, cells closest give rise to posterior structures, cells farthest give rise to anterior structures
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ZPA, zone of polarizing activity
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diffusion of gases works for how far?
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only a few mm
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simple cavity that does digestion as well as gas exchange
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gastrovascular cavity
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principle components of circulatory systems
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circulatory fluid, set of interconnecting tubes, and muscular pump to provide a pressure gradient through system
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system where blood and interstitial fluid is contiguous
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open system
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fluid that is blood and interstitial fluid mixed
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hemolymph
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system where blood is distinct from interstitial fluid
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closed system
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these use a closed system
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vertebrates, squid, octopus, annelids, cephalopods
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use an open system
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arthropods and molluscs
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primary site for gas exchange in closed system
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capillaries
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blood gets o2 then body then heart
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single circulation
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blood gets o2 then heart then body then heart
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double circulation
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this system has a lot more pressure through its second capillary bed
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double circulation
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principle components of circulatory systems
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circulatory fluid, set of interconnecting tubes, and muscular pump to provide a pressure gradient through system
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fish heart
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1 atrium 1 ventricle
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system where blood and interstitial fluid is contiguous
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open system
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amphibian heart
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2 atria 1 ventricle with ridge between ventricles
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fluid that is blood and interstitial fluid mixed
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hemolymph
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reptile heart
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2 atria 1 ventricle with almost complete septum
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system where blood is distinct from interstitial fluid
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closed system
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mammals/birds heart
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2 atria 2 ventricles
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these use a closed system
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vertebrates, squid, octopus, annelids, cephalopods
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oxygen poor side of heart
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right
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use an open system
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arthropods and molluscs
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primary site for gas exchange in closed system
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capillaries
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blood gets o2 then body then heart
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single circulation
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blood gets o2 then heart then body then heart
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double circulation
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this system has a lot more pressure through its second capillary bed
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double circulation
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fish heart
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1 atrium 1 ventricle
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amphibian heart
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2 atria 1 ventricle with ridge between ventricles
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reptile heart
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2 atria 1 ventricle with almost complete septum
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mammals/birds heart
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2 atria 2 ventricles
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oxygen poor side of heart
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right
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principle components of circulatory systems
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circulatory fluid, set of interconnecting tubes, and muscular pump to provide a pressure gradient through system
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system where blood and interstitial fluid is contiguous
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open system
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fluid that is blood and interstitial fluid mixed
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hemolymph
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system where blood is distinct from interstitial fluid
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closed system
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these use a closed system
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vertebrates, squid, octopus, annelids, cephalopods
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use an open system
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arthropods and molluscs
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primary site for gas exchange in closed system
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capillaries
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blood gets o2 then body then heart
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single circulation
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blood gets o2 then heart then body then heart
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double circulation
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this system has a lot more pressure through its second capillary bed
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double circulation
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fish heart
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1 atrium 1 ventricle
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amphibian heart
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2 atria 1 ventricle with ridge between ventricles
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reptile heart
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2 atria 1 ventricle with almost complete septum
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mammals/birds heart
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2 atria 2 ventricles
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oxygen poor side of heart
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right
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oxygen rich side of heart
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left
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pumps blood to lungs via pulmonary arteries
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right ventricle
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aorta pumps blood to:
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1. coronary arteries of heart
2. head and arms 3. rest of body |
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takes blood from head and arms back to heart
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superior vena cava
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takes blood from truck and lower limbs back to heart
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inferior vena cava
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contraction phase of heart
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systole
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relaxation phase of heart
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diastole
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hydrostatic pressure against wall of vessel
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blood pressure
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valves from atria to ventricles
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AV valves (atrioventricular)
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valves from ventricles to arteries
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semilunar valves
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lub recoil of blood is against this valve
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av valves
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dub recoil of blood is against these valves
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semilunar
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pacemaker of heart, in wall of right atrium, sends signal that spreads across atria causing atria to contract together
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sinoatrial node SA node
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in wall between right and left atria, delays signal briefly; conducts the normal electrical impulse from the atria to the ventricles
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AV node atrioventricular
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signal in heart sent to heart apex via
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bundle of His
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signal in heart spreads across ventricles via
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purkinje fibers
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bad cholesterol
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LDL low density lipoproteins
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good cholesterol
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HDL high density lipoproteins
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genetic condition in which liver keeps making LDL
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familial hypercholesterolemia
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MA is a block of
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coronary artery
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narrowing of arteries and reduction of elasticity, deposition and hardening of plaque
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atherosclerosis, a form of arteriosclerosis
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shape of red blood cells (erythrocytes)
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biconcave to maximize surface area
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3 major blood carriers
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arteries veins and capillaries
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pressure in arteries when ventricles contract
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systolic
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residual pressure during relaxation phase
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diastolic
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pressures at arterial end of capillary?
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blood pressure greater than osmotic pressure, so there is an outward flow of water, sugar, salts, urea, oxygen
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pressures at venule end of capillary?
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blood pressure less than osmotic pressure, so there is an inward flow of about 85% of fluids that previously left
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malnutrition causes edema why?
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causes drop in blood protein concentration, shifting bp to osmotic pressure balance (bp lower than osmotic pressure) leading to edema
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collects remaining fluid and any leaked proteins
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lymph capillaries
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body defense system against viruses and bacteria, become swollen and sore during infections
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lymph nodes
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severe edema caused by parasitic worms blocking lymph vessels
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elephantiasis
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ficks law of diffusion
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R=DA(P1-P2/L)
R is rate of diffusion between two locations D is diffusion coefficient A is cross sectional area P1 and P2 are partial pressures L is distance between two locations |
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how to maximize D in ficks law?
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use air not water, air has much more oxygen, diffuses faster, requires less energy to move
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how to maximize L in ficks law
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have very thin tissues to diffuse through
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three major animal systems of diffusion
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tracheal (insects)
gills (fish) lungs (vertebrates birds mammals reptiles) sometimes outer skin (worms) |
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this system has air tubes throughout body with openings to outside through spiracles
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tracheal system of insects
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how does temp affect o2 concentration in water
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warmer water means less 02
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when water and blood move in opposite directions
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perfusion
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how perfusion works
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o2 poor water meets o2 poor blood to maximize o2 transfer
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movement of air in humans
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nose/mouth to pharynx to larynx to trachea to bronchi to bronchioles to alveoli
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volume of air inhaled or exhaled with each breath at rest
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tidal volume
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additional volume of air taken in above tidal volume
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inspiratory reserve volume
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additional amount of air that can be forcibly exhaled
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expiratory reserve volume
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maximum forced volume expired after max forced inhale
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vital capacity = TV+IRV+ERV
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total lung capacity
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vital capacity + residual volume
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trap and destroy pathogens in pharynx
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adenoids and tonsils
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voice box
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larynx
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surface of trachea is ciliated and moves mucus loaded with debris toward pharynx
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mucus escalator
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copd
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chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
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circulate in blood, bind 02, increase amount of 02 transport per unit blood
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respiratory pigments
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hemoglobin o2 and co2
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co2 binds to hemoglobin at much higher affinity than o2, preventing transport of 02
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bohr shift
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when exercising, more oxygen is needed in the muscles, and the blood is acidic (lactice acid), causing a "Down Right Bore" shift, the affintiy of Hemoglobin for oxygen is much decreased
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oxygen binding molecule found in muscle cells, much higher affinity than hemoglobin
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myoglobin
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fetal hemoglobin different from adult hemoglobin?
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fetal hemoglobin has higher affinity for 02 than maternal
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most carbon dioxide leaves how?
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through the blood as bicarbonate ions
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controls tempo of breathing
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pons
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controls rhythm of breathing
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medulla oblongata
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three energy rich molecules that we consume
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carbohydrates (simple sugars)
proteins (meat) (burned last) fats (most energy rich) |
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this allows for compartmentalization for ingestion, digestion, absorption and elimination
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alimentary canal
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moves food through system involuntarily
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peristalsis
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salivary glands secrete:
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salivary amylase (digestion)
mucin (protection and lubrication) buffers (prevent tooth decay) antibacterials |
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viral infection of salivary glands
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mumps
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stomach secretes:
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hcl, pepsinogen that is converted to pepsin by HCL, chyme (ingested food and gastric juice)
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stomach to small intestine ring
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pyloric sphincter
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most digestion completed here
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duodenum
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chyme from stomach mixes with juices from
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pancreas, liver/gallbladder, and wall of duodenum itself
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pancreas secretes:
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alkaline solution that neutralizes chyme
digestive enzymes as well like amylase, protease, nuclease, lipase |
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liver secretes:
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bile: synthesized from cholesterol, bile pigments, bile salts
stored in gallbladder emuslifiers that increase exposure of fats to lipases |
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crystallization of cholesterol, too much cholesterol too little bile salts
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gallstones
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released from stomach and causes stomach to release more gastric juices
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gastrin
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relase triggered by fatty acids and AA, stimulates release of enzymes from pancreas and bile from gallbladder
inhibits movement and acid release in stomach sends satiety signal to brain |
cholecystokinin (CCK)
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relase triggered by acid, stimulates pancrease to release bicarbonate, inhibition stomach like CCK
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secretin
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tells brain you are full
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satiety signal
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absorption of nutrients occurs in
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jejunum and ileum
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leads to liver from small intestine, removes toxic substances, regulates nutrient balance
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hepatic portal vein
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water-soluble fat globules; triglycerides coated with cholesterol, phospholipids and proteins; deals with fat absorption
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chylomicron
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xenical (alli) works by:
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blocking absorption of fat by interfering with lipase
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part of colon, plays role in immunity
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appendix
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beginning of large intestine
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cecum
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roles of colon
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recovery of water
elimination of undigested food rich flora of bacteria generate gases and vitamins |
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extra calories go where?
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liver and muscles (glycogen storage)
anything else turns into fat liver glycogen used first, then muscle then fat |
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appetite stimulant secreted by stomach as mealtime approaches
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ghrelin
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appetite suppressants
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CCK, gastric distention and insulin, leptin: secreted by fat tissue, increases as fat amount increases
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