Biol 2401 - Fundamentals Of Anatomy & Physiology - Martini Book And Biduaka Lecture - Exam 1

Front 1

What is anatomy?

Back 1

the study of the structures of the body and the relationships among and between those structures

(describe what you see and locate organs)

Front 2

What is physiology?

Back 2

the study of the functions of body structures

(are organs/structures working properly)

Front 3

Gross anatomy is also called:

Back 3

macroscopic anatomy

Front 4

What is gross anatomy?

Back 4

a type of anatomy that can be undertaken without a microscope

Front 5

What is microscopic anatomy?

Back 5

requires a microscope (e.g., light or phase microscope)

micro = 10 to the -6
nano = 10 to the -9

Front 6

What is ultramicroscopic anatomy?

Back 6

requires the use of an electron microscope, either:
T.E.M. - transmission electron microscopy (in-depth, inside), or
S.E.M. - scanning electron microscopy (surface)

magnification of 250,000X

Front 7

What is regional anatomy?

Back 7

studies specific regions of the body

(e.g., head and neck, thoracic)

Front 8

Microscopic anatomy is also equal to:

Back 8

histology (and cytology)

Front 9

What is systemic anatomy?

Back 9

the study of a specific system

(e.g., digestive system, endocrine system)

Front 10

What is radiographic anatomy?

Back 10

study of the structure of the body using X-rays

Front 11

What is cytology?

Back 11

microscopic study of the individual cells

Front 12

What is histology?

Back 12

microscopic study of the tissues (groups of cells)

Front 13

What is embryological anatomy?

Back 13

study of prenatal development (the fertilized egg) from days 12-58 (thereafter it is a fetus)

Front 14

What are some non-invasive imaging techniques?

Back 14

MRI
CAT Scan
PET Scan
X-ray

Front 15

What is pathological anatomy?

Back 15

study of structural change associated with disease (or death)

Front 16

What is systemic physiology?

Back 16

study of the function of the systems

(e.g., the study of how you breathe using the respiratory system)

Front 17

What is cell physiology?

Back 17

the study of the function of a cell, how it moves and does its work

Front 18

What is neurophysiology?

Back 18

the study of the function of nerve cells (reflexes, etc.)

Front 19

What is endocrinology?

Back 19

the study of hormones and how they control body functions

Front 20

What is immunology?

Back 20

the study of the body defense mechanisms (antibodies/immunoglobulin) against antigens

Front 21

What is homeostasis?

Back 21

an inner stability of the body, even if the environment outside of the body changes

Front 22

homeo =
stasis=

Back 22

same
standing

(everything in balance)

Front 23

When is homeostasis achieved?

Back 23

when structures (anatomy) and functions (physiology) are properly coordinated

Front 24

What makes the entire regulation process of homeostasis possible?

Back 24

the coordinated action of many organs and tissues under the control of the:

- nervous system and
- endocrine system

Front 25

What happens when homeostasis breaks down?

Back 25

we get sick or die

Front 26

What is one way to disrupt homeostasis?

Back 26

introduce stress

(a stressor/stimulus/disruptor)

Front 27

What factors interrupt homeostasis and provoke change in the body?

Back 27

stressors
stimuli
disruptors
(all mean the same)

Front 28

Stress is the overall disruption that forces the body to:

Back 28

make adaptive changes

Front 29

Factors causing stress are called:

Back 29

stressors

(or stimuli, or disruptors)

Front 30

What are some stressors/stimuli/disruptors?

Back 30

- heat/cold
- viruses
- mental disturbances
- hormones

Front 31

What does the feedback system look like?

Back 31

receptor---> control center ----> effector

Front 32

Name some receptors.

Back 32

thermoreceptors
chemoreceptors
nociceptors

Front 33

Which is the "stupid animal brain"?

Back 33

the hypothalamus

Front 34

Which portion of the brain is responsible for higher-level/more rational thought?

Back 34

the cortex

Front 35

The feedback system is:

Back 35

a response to the initiating stimulus

Front 36

Feedback may be:

Back 36

positive or negative

Front 37

What is negative feedback?

Back 37

when the response is opposite to the initiating stimulus

(e.g., body increases production of heat to oppose cold weather)

Front 38

What is positive feedback?

Back 38

when the response reinforces the initial stimulus

positive feedback leads to death except in special cases like childbirth, lactation, and blood clotting

Front 39

List the organizational levels of the body.

Back 39

- atom
- element
- molecule/compound
- cells
- tissues
- organs
- organ systems
- organism

Front 40

What are the levels of organization found in both living and nonliving things?

Back 40

- atoms
- elements
- molecules/compounds

Front 41

What is the basic unit of all matter?

Back 41

atom

Front 42

What are the smallest thing we are made of?

Back 42

atoms

Front 43

What is a molecule?

Back 43

a combination of 2 or more atoms

(e.g., O2, H2)

Front 44

What is a compound?

Back 44

a molecule containing atoms of more than one element

(e.g., H2O, CO2, protein, lipid)

Front 45

What levels of organization are only found in living things?

Back 45

- cells
- tissues
- organs
- organ systems
- (organism)

Front 46

What are cells?

Back 46

the smallest independent units of life

the smallest living thing we're made of

Front 47

What are tissues?

Back 47

a group of similar cells that perform a specific function

Front 48

How many types of tissue are there? What are they?

Back 48

4
- nervous
- epithelial
- muscular
- connective

Front 49

Where is epithelial tissue located?

Back 49

in the skin and lining of organs

Front 50

What functions does epithelial tissue perform?

Back 50

- protection
- transport
- secretion
- excretion
- absorption

Front 51

Where is connective tissue located?

Back 51

throughout the body
in many organs

Front 52

What functions does connective tissue perform?

Back 52

- support
- protection (e.g., bone)
- repair

Front 53

Name some connective tissues.

Back 53

- tendons
- ligaments
- cartilage
- fat
- blood
- bone

Front 54

What are the three types of muscle tissue?

Back 54

- skeletal
- smooth
- cardiac

Front 55

What are the two types of involuntary muscle tissues?

Back 55

- smooth
- cardiac

Front 56

Which type of muscle is voluntary?

Back 56

skeletal

Front 57

Where is skeletal muscle found?

Back 57

in the limbs, face, abdomen, etc.

Front 58

Where is smooth muscle found?

Back 58

in the digestive system (peristalsis), blood vessels, uterus, etc.

Front 59

Where is cardiac muscle found?

Back 59

in the heart

Front 60

Where is nerve tissue found?

Back 60

- brain
- spinal cord
- nerves

Front 61

What is the function of nerve tissue?

Back 61

- respond to stimuli
- transport nerve impulses from one part of the body to another

Front 62

What is an organ?

Back 62

two or more kinds of tissue bound together to form a structure

Front 63

What is the largest organ of the body?

Back 63

skin

Front 64

What is a system?

Back 64

a group of organs and their tissues that work together to perform a major function

Front 65

What comprises the integumentary system?

Back 65

- skin
- nails
- hair
- sweat glands
- oil glands

Front 66

What is the function of the integumentary system?

Back 66

- protection
- regulation of body temperature
- sensory reception

Front 67

What comprises the skeletal system?

Back 67

- bone
- cartilage

Front 68

What is the function of the skeletal system?

Back 68

- support the body
- protect organs
- manufacture RBCs
- provide lever mechanism for movement

Front 69

What comprises the muscular system?

Back 69

- skeletal muscle
- smooth muscle
- cardiac muscle

Front 70

What is the function of the muscular system?

Back 70

- body movement
- produce body heat

Front 71

What comprises the nervous system?

Back 71

- brain
- spinal cord
- peripheral nerves
- sensory organs

Front 72

What is the function of the nervous system?

Back 72

- regulates body activities
- initiates action of muscles
- promotes homeostasis

Front 73

What comprises the endocrine system?

Back 73

ductless glands

Front 74

What is the function of the endocrine system?

Back 74

- secrete hormones
- promotes homeostasis

Front 75

What comprises the cardiovascular system?

Back 75

- heart
- blood vessels
- blood

Front 76

What is the function of the cardiovascular system?

Back 76

pump blood through the vessels for:
- transportation of gases
- movement of nutrients

Front 77

What comprises the respiratory system?

Back 77

- lungs
- airways
- nose
- pharynx
- larynx

Front 78

What is the function of the respiratory system?

Back 78

- breathing
- exchange of gases between air and blood

Front 79

What comprises the digestive system?

Back 79

- organs from mouth to anus
- accessory structures such as liver, pancreas, etc.

Front 80

What is the function of the digestive system?

Back 80

- break down food
- remove solid waste

Front 81

What comprises the urinary system?

Back 81

- kidneys
- ureters
- bladder
- urethra

Front 82

What is the function of the urinary system?

Back 82

- eliminate metabolic wastes
- regulate blood pressure
- regulate water-salt balance

Front 83

What comprises the reproductive system?

Back 83

- ovaries
- testes
- germ cells
- accessory glands
- ducts

Front 84

What is the function of the reproductive system?

Back 84

continuation of the species

Front 85

What comprises the lymphatic system?

Back 85

- lymph nodes
- lymph vessels
- tonsils

Front 86

What is the function of the lymphatic system?

Back 86

- immune system defense of body
- fat transport

Front 87

What comprises the immune system?

Back 87

lymphocytes (T and B cells)

Front 88

What is the function of the immune system?

Back 88

- to defend the body from foreign invaders
- assist in repair of trauma

Front 89

What is an organism?

Back 89

the complete human (animal)
the highest level of organization

Front 90

From where did "anatomical position" originate?

Back 90

Vienna, Austria

Front 91

Describe anatomical position.

Back 91

- body standing erect
- facing forward
- feet together
- arms hanging at sides
- palms facing forward (the way the body is facing)

Front 92

Divides the body symmetrically into left and right halves

(longitudinal or vertical)

Back 92

midsagittal or median plane

Front 93

Divides the body asymmetrically into left and right parts

(longitudinal or vertical)

Back 93

sagittal or parasagittal plane

Front 94

Divides the body into anterior and posterior sections

(longitudinal or vertical)

Back 94

frontal or coronal plane

Front 95

Divides the body horizontally into superior and inferior sections

Back 95

transverse or horizontal plane

or crossection(al)

Front 96

cranial or cephalic

Back 96

toward the head

Front 97

Caudal

Back 97

toward the tail

Front 98

superior

Back 98

above

to move up on a human

Front 99

inferior

Back 99

below

to move down on a human

Front 100

anterior or ventral

Back 100

toward the front

Front 101

posterior or dorsal

Back 101

toward the back

Front 102

medial

Back 102

toward the midline

Front 103

lateral

Back 103

away from the midline

Front 104

proximal

Back 104

nearer to the trunk

(only for limbs)

Front 105

distal

Back 105

further from the trunk

(only for limbs)

Front 106

superficial or external

Back 106

near the surface

Front 107

deep or internal

Back 107

farther from the surface

Front 108

dorsal of foot

Back 108

upper surface of foot

Front 109

dorsal of hand

Back 109

back of hand

Front 110

parietal

Back 110

related to body walls

(e.g., pleural membrane is parietal to lung)

Front 111

visceral

Back 111

related to interior organ

(e.g., lung is visceral to pleural membrane)

Front 112

supine

Back 112

to recline on one's back

Front 113

prone

Back 113

to recline on one's front
(lie face down on stomach)

Front 114

oblique

Back 114

at an angle

Front 115

What are the two main regions of the body?

Back 115

- axial part
- appendicular part

Front 116

What comprises the axial part of the body?

Back 116

- head
- neck
- thorax
- abdomen
(basically everything but arms and legs)

(I saw shoulder and pelvic girdles included with appendicular at one point????)

Front 117

What comprises the appendicular part of the body?

Back 117

- upper limbs
- lower limbs

Front 118

What is the purpose of the body cavities?

Back 118

to house and protect the organs

Front 119

What are the two main body cavities?

Back 119

- ventral
- dorsal

(cavities are all in axial part b/c appendicular part--arms and legs--is solid)

Front 120

What comprises the dorsal (posterior) cavity?

Back 120

- cranial cavity
- spinal (vertebral) cavity

Front 121

What is the composition and function of the cranial cavity?

Back 121

- formed by the cranial bones
- houses and protects the brain

Front 122

What is the composition and function of the vertebral (spinal) cavity?

Back 122

- formed by vertebrae of backbone
- houses and protects spinal cord and roots of spinal nerves

Front 123

What cavities comprise the ventral (anterior) cavity?

Back 123

- thoracic cavity (upper)
- abdominopelvic cavity (lower)

Front 124

Ventral (anterior) body cavity is located in the ____ _____ of the body.

Back 124

front aspect

Front 125

What comprises the thoracic cavity?

Back 125

- pericardial cavity
- pleural cavity
- mediastinum

Front 126

What is contained in the pericardial cavity?

Back 126

the heart

Front 127

What lines the pericardial cavity?

Back 127

the pericardium

Front 128

What type of membrane is the pericardium?

Back 128

serous

Front 129

What is contained in the (right and left) pleural cavities?

Back 129

the lungs

Front 130

What lines the pleural cavities?

Back 130

the pleura

Front 131

What type of membrane is the pleura?

Back 131

a serous membrane

Front 132

What is the mediastinum?

Back 132

the region or space between the lungs, the thoracic inlet, and the diaphragm

Front 133

What is contained within the mediastinum?

Back 133

- esophagus
- trachea
- primary bronchi
- thymus gland
- heart (pericardial cavity)
- large blood vessels
- lymphatic vessels

Front 134

What lines the abdominopelvic cavity?

Back 134

the peritoneum

Front 135

What type of membrane is the peritoneum?

Back 135

serous

Front 136

What are the boundaries for the abdominal cavity?

Back 136

- diaphragm at the top
- pelvic brim at the bottom

Front 137

What is contained within the abdominal cavity?

Back 137

- stomach
- spleen
- pancreas
- liver
- gallbladder
- most of small and large intestines
- kidneys
- adrenal glands
- most of ureters
- major blood vessels (inferior vena cava, abdominal aorta)

Front 138

What are the boundaries for the pelvic cavity?

Back 138

- pelvic brim at the top
- bottom of the cavity

Front 139

What is contained within the pelvic cavity?

Back 139

- urinary bladder
- parts of small and large intestine
- remainder of ureters
- vermiform appendix
- internal reproductive organs of male (seminal vesicles, prostate) and female (ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, cervix, upper vagina)

Front 140

Into how many quadrants can the abdominopelvic cavity be divided? Name them.

Back 140

4
- right upper quadrant
- right lower quadrant
- left upper quadrant
- left lower quadrant

Front 141

Who uses quadrants in their jobs?

Back 141

clinicians, surgeons, etc.

Front 142

Into how many regions can the abdominopelvic cavity be divided? Name them.

Back 142

9
- right and left hypochondriac
- right and left lumbar
- right and left iliac/inguinal
- epigastric
- umbilical
- hypogastric

Front 143

Axillary

Back 143

armpit

Front 144

Buccal

Back 144

cheek

Front 145

Carpal

Back 145

wrist

Front 146

Celiac

Back 146

abdomen

Front 147

Cervical

Back 147

neck

Front 148

Costal

Back 148

ribs

Front 149

Gluteal

Back 149

buttocks

Front 150

Loin

Back 150

lumbar (lower back between ribs and pelvis)

Front 151

Palmar (metacarpal)

Back 151

palm of hand

Front 152

Pectoral

Back 152

chest

Front 153

Pedal (pedis)

Back 153

foot

Front 154

Perineal

Back 154

region between anus and external reproductive organs

Front 155

Plantar

Back 155

sole of foot

Front 156

Popliteal

Back 156

back of knee

Front 157

Cephalic (cranial) (caput)

Back 157

head

Front 158

Brachial

Back 158

arm

Front 159

Antecubital

Back 159

front of elbow

Front 160

Antebrachial

Back 160

forearm

Front 161

Crural

Back 161

leg

Front 162

Tarsal

Back 162

ankle/instep

Front 163

Inguinal

Back 163

groin

Front 164

Coxal

Back 164

hip

Front 165

Umbilical

Back 165

navel

Front 166

Mental

Back 166

chin

Front 167

Acromial

Back 167

shoulder (point of)

Front 168

Sural

Back 168

calf

Front 169

Calcaneal

Back 169

heel of foot

Front 170

Peritoneum

Back 170

lining of abdominal cavity

Front 171

What are 7 characteristics of living forms/living cells?

Back 171

- metabolism
- responsiveness
- differentiation
- growth
- reproduction
- adaptation
- movement

Hint 171

MR D GRAM

Front 172

What is metabolism?

Back 172

sum of all chemical processes that keep our bodies alive and healthy

Front 173

What are the 2 phases/parts of metabolism?

Back 173

- anabolism
- catabolism

Front 174

What is catabolism?

Back 174

phase of metabolism that provides energy by breaking down complex molecules into simple molecules

(e.g., proteins ---> amino acids)

Front 175

What is anabolism?

Back 175

phase of metabolism that uses the energy from catabolism to build up body's structural and functional components

a.k.a. biosynthesis

(e.g., amino acids ---> proteins)

Front 176

What is another word for anabolism?

Back 176

biosynthesis

Front 177

What is responsiveness, with respect to characteristics of living forms/cells?

Back 177

to respond to changes

to give a response to a stimulus

Front 178

What is movement, with respect to characteristics of living forms/cells?

Back 178

motion of the body, organs, or cells

Front 179

What is growth, with respect to characteristics of living forms/cells?

Back 179

increase in size and complexity

Front 180

What is differentiation, with respect to characteristics of living forms/cells?

Back 180

specialization of the cells

(at conception all cells look alike, then differentiate==stem cells)

Front 181

What is reproduction, with respect to characteristics of living forms/cells?

Back 181

formation of new cells or formation of a new individual

Front 182

What is adaptation, with respect to characteristics of living forms/cells?

Back 182

ability to adjust to any given condition

Front 183

Who uses abdominopelvic regions in their work?

Back 183

anatomists

Front 184

Whenever one is describing a body structure and establishes the relationship of that structure with the neighboring structure, it means that he is studying:

a. physiology
b. endocrinology
c. anatomy
d. cytology

Back 184

c. anatomy

Front 185

The big toe is ______ to the other toes of the same side

Back 185

medial

Front 186

The stomach is _____ to the spleen

Back 186

medial

Front 187

The kidneys are _______ to the vertebral column

Back 187

lateral

Front 188

The skull is _______ to the brain

Back 188

superficial

Front 189

The head is ______ to the thorax

Back 189

superior

Front 190

Your arm is _______ to the wrist

Back 190

proximal

Front 191

Your legs are _______ to your thighs

Back 191

distal

Front 192

In anatomical position your palms are facing _______.

Back 192

anteriorly

Front 193

The breasts are _______ to the navel

Back 193

lateral

Front 194

The lungs are ______ to the ribs

Back 194

deep

Front 195

The skin is _______ to the muscle

Back 195

superficial

Front 196

Your eyes are ________ to your nose

Back 196

lateral

Front 197

Your thumb is ______ to the pinky.

Back 197

lateral

Front 198

The radius is ______ to the ulna

Back 198

lateral

Front 199

The sternum is ventral to the vertebral column. (T/F)

Back 199

true

Front 200

The vertebral column is posterior to the sternum. (T/F)

Back 200

true

Front 201

Visceral and parietal have the same meaning. (T/F)

Back 201

false

Front 202

Caudal and cranial are opposite, likewise plantar and dorsal are also opposite. (T/F)

Back 202

true

Front 203

The amplification of the effect of a stimulus will result in a “negative feedback”. (T/F)

Back 203

false

Front 204

The enhancement of the action of a stimulus will definitely be classified as a “positive feedback”. (T/F)

Back 204

true

Front 205

Homeostasis is mainly achieved through “negative feedback”. (T/F)

Back 205

true

Front 206

During surgery, the surgeon does his best to ensure that the patient does not bleed heavily through a process called hemostasis. Is it a positive feedback or a negative feedback?

Back 206

negative feedback

In case that the surgeon perform hemostasis, the feedback is negative because it is against the stimulus. In case hemostasis occurs spontaneously without outside intervention then the feedback is positive.

Front 207

In which cavities are these organs located? Be very specific.

ovaries
heart
lungs
transverse colon

Back 207

pelvic cavity
thoracic cavity/pericardial cavity
thoracic cavity/pleural cavities
abdominal cavity

Front 208

In which cavities are these organs located? Be very specific.

abdominal aorta
urinary bladder
pancreas
thymus

Back 208

abdominal cavity
pelvic cavity
abdominal cavity
thoracic cavity (mediastinum)

Front 209

In which cavities are these organs located? Be very specific.

gall bladder
rectum
spine
primary bronchus
superior vena cava

Back 209

abdominal cavity
pelvic cavity
vertebral/spinal cavity
thoracic cavity (mediastinum)
thoracic cavity

Front 210

The head, the neck and the trunk are part of the appendicular region. (T/F)

Back 210

false

Front 211

The axial region encompasses

Back 211

everything but the arms and legs

Front 212

Is it true that cardiac muscle and skeletal muscles are both voluntary? Justify your answer.

Back 212

No. Skeletal muscles are voluntary and move when you tell them. Cardiac (and smooth) muscles are involuntary. You do not tell your heart to beat or digestive system to conduct peristalsis.

Front 213

Why do you think that smooth muscle can also be called visceral muscle?

Back 213

Because the smooth muscle lines many of the organs (viscera), like the ones in the digestive tract responsible for moving food via peristalsis.

Front 214

The type of tissue which responds readily to a stimulus is:

a. epithelial tissue
b. nervous tissue

Back 214

b. nervous tissue

Front 215

All these organs are part of respiratory system except:

nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, sebaceous glands, bronchi, bronchioles, lungs

Back 215

sebaceous glands

Front 216

A collection of organs which work together to perform a specific function is called:

Back 216

an organ system

Front 217

Prenatal development is also called:

Back 217

embryological anatomy

Front 218

Laparoscopy and arthroscopy are non-invasive techniques. (T/F)

Back 218

false

they are minimally invasive, but you're still cutting into someone

Front 219

The ______ system dumps all its products into the bloodstream.

Back 219

endocrine

Front 220

The study of the bodily function is histology. (T/F)

Back 220

false

physiology

Front 221

These two systems, namely _____ and _____ are involved in regulating homeostasis.

Back 221

nervous

endocrine

Front 222

The lactation process is a negative feedback process. (T/F) Please justify your answer.

Back 222

false

the more the baby eats, the more milk is made

Front 223

The planes which divide the body symmetrically into left and right parts will be called:

Back 223

median plane or

midsagittal plane

Front 224

My stomach is located in the ______ plane.

Back 224

parasagittal

Front 225

The plane that divides the body into anterior and posterior is called:

Back 225

frontal plane or

coronal plane

Front 226

When an MRI is performed, the anatomical plane involved is:

Back 226

transverse plane or

horizontal plane

Front 227

The transverse plane is different from the horizontal plane. (T/F)

Back 227

false

Front 228

The sum of all the chemical reactions taking place in your body is called:

Back 228

metabolism

Front 229

Biosynthesis is considered the same as:

anabolic reaction
catabolic reaction

Back 229

anabolic reaction

Front 230

Specialization is also called _______ in anatomy.

Back 230

differentiation

Front 231

Decomposition is to catabolism what biosynthesis is to:

Back 231

anabolism

Front 232

The inguinal region is also called the:

Back 232

iliac region

Front 233

What is chemistry?

Back 233

the study of the composition of matter

the study of what a structure is made of

Front 234

What is matter?

Back 234

anything that takes up space and has mass

Front 235

Matter consists of:

Back 235

chemical elements in pure form, and in combinations called compounds

Front 236

In what three states does matter exist?

Back 236

- solid
- liquid
- gas

Front 237

What is mass?

Back 237

the measure of the amount of matter an object contains

Front 238

What is weight?

Back 238

a measure of the pull of gravity on a mass

Front 239

What is an element?

Back 239

a substance that cannot be broken down into other substances by chemical means

a kind of atom

(hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, etc.)

Front 240

How many naturally occurring elements are there?

Back 240

92

Front 241

How many naturally occurring elements are essential for life?

Back 241

25

Front 242

What four elements make up 96 percent of living matter?

Back 242

- hydrogen (9.7%)
- oxygen (65%)
- nitrogen (3.2%)
- carbon (18.6%)

Front 243

The remaining 4 percent of living matter is comprised of:

Back 243

- potassium (K)
- sulfur (S)
- sodium (Na)
- chlorine (Cl)
- magnesium (Mg)
and trace elements

Front 244

What is energy?

Back 244

the ability to do work

Front 245

The number of protons ______ an element and ______ _____ ______

Back 245

defines

does not change

Front 246

The number of protons in an element is known as its:

Back 246

atomic number

if 1 proton, MUST be hydrogen
if 7 protons, MUST be carbon, etc.

Front 247

Explain:

12 13
C C
6 6

Back 247

top number is atomic mass or mass number

middle is the symbol for the element

bottom is atomic number

these are 2 isotopes of carbon

Front 248

What is chemical energy?

Back 248

energy stored in chemical bonds of molecules

ATP (adenosine triphosphate--made by mitochondria)

Front 249

What is potential energy?

Back 249

energy stored in matter because of its position

Front 250

What are two types of potential energy?

Back 250

- chemical energy
- electrical energy

Front 251

What is electrical energy?

Back 251

energy of charged particles stored in a particular location, such as a battery

energy derived from the flow of electrons

energy of charged particles (electrons) moving and creating a current

Front 252

What is kinetic energy?

Back 252

the energy of motion

Front 253

What are three types of kinetic energy?

Back 253

- heat
- electromagnetic energy
- electrical energy

Front 254

What is heat?

Back 254

the energy of molecular motion

Front 255

What is electromagnetic energy?

Back 255

the energy of moving photons, e.g., light

Front 256

How are elements classified in the periodic table?

Back 256

based on their chemical properties

Front 257

What is the first law of thermodynamics?

Back 257

energy can be neither created nor destroyed, but can be converted from one form to another

Front 258

What is the second law of thermodynamics?

Back 258

as energy forms convert form one form to another, the universe increases in disorder

Front 259

What is an atom?

Back 259

the basic unit of all matter

the smallest possible unit of matter that retains the physical and chemical properties of that element

nucleus and electron shell

Front 260

The structure of an atom determines:

Back 260

its chemical behavior

Front 261

What are the subatomic particles?

Back 261

neutrons (no charge)
protons (positive charge)
electrons (negative charge)

Front 262

How are electrons arranged in the electron cloud/shell (for our purposes)?

Back 262

2 maximum in innermost layer
8 maximum in second layer
8 maximum in third layer

Front 263

What is the atomic number?

Back 263

the number of protons in the nucleus

(it is also equal to the number of electrons, if the atom is neutral)

Front 264

What is the atomic mass?

Back 264

the sum of the number of protons and the number of neutrons in an atom

Front 265

What is another term for atomic mass?

Back 265

mass number

Front 266

What is the atomic weight?

Back 266

the average of the mass numbers of an element's isotopes

Front 267

What are the energy levels of electrons?

Back 267

arrangement of electrons in an atom into different layers (a.k.a. electron shells or orbitals)

electrons have potential energy due to their position relative to the nucleus of the atom

Front 268

How many electrons can the first electron shell hold?

The second and third? (for our purposes anyway)

Back 268

2 (K orbital)
8 (L orbital)
8 (M orbital)

Front 269

The chemical behavior of atoms is determined by:

Back 269

configuration of its electrons

Front 270

What are valence electrons?

Back 270

electrons in the outermost electron shell of the atom

Front 271

What is the outermost electron shell of an atom called?

Back 271

valence shell

Front 272

How many valence electrons are in:
1) hydrogen, lithium, sodium, potassium
2) helium, calcium
3) carbon
4) nitrogen
5) oxygen
6) chlorine

Back 272

1 - H, Li, Na, K
2 - He, Ca
4 - C
5 - N
6 - O
7 - Cl

Front 273

The chemical behavior of atoms is determined by:

Back 273

configuration of its electrons

Front 274

Chemical bonds formed between atoms involve:

Back 274

valence electrons

Front 275

What is an isotope?

Back 275

various atoms of an element that have the same number of protons (because that defines the element) but different numbers of neutrons

Front 276

What are radioactive isotopes?

Back 276

isotopes that are decaying to a more stable configuration

as they decay they emit radiation

some have medical uses:
Iodine-131 - check thyroid size/activity
Radium-226 - cancer radiation therapy

Front 277

What is a half-life?

Back 277

the amount of time for half of the radioactive isotope to decay and disappear

Front 278

What are molecules?

Back 278

two or more atoms chemically combined (forming bonds)

Front 279

What are chemical bonds?

Back 279

attractions between atoms that hold molecules together

Front 280

What are three types of chemical bonds?

Back 280

- covalent bonds
- ionic bonds
- hydrogen bonds

Front 281

What are covalent bonds?

Back 281

chemical bonds formed by atoms SHARING one or more pairs of electrons

Front 282

What are two types of covalent bonds?

Back 282

nonpolar covalent bonds - atoms share electron pair(s) equally

polar covalent bonds - atoms share pair(s) of electrons unequally (e.g., water)

Front 283

What makes a covalent bond nonpolar?

Back 283

the atoms share the electron pair(s) equally

e.g., H2 - each H atom needs one more electron to fill its valence shell; they each share their own electron equally because they are the same size and exert the same amount of pull on the electrons

Front 284

What makes a covalent bond polar?

Back 284

the atoms do not share the electrons equally

e.g., with water, O needs an electron from each H atom; as the O atom is so much larger, it exerts more force on the electrons, making that end of the compound slightly negative and leaving the H ends slightly positive

Front 285

What is an ion?

Back 285

a charged atom or molecule

Front 286

What is an anion?

Back 286

an atom that has gained one or more electrons from another atom and become negatively charged

e.g., Cl- (receiver, negative, anion) takes electron from Na

Front 287

What is a cation?

Back 287

an atom that has lost one or more electrons and become positively charged

e.g., Na+ (giver, positive, cation) gives electron to Cl

Front 288

Are ionic bonds strong or weak?

Back 288

weak

Front 289

What is an ionic bond?

Back 289

bond formed by the attraction between an atom with a positive electrical charge (cation) and an atom with a negative electrical charge (anion)

Front 290

What is a hydrogen bond?

Back 290

a bond formed when a covalently bonded hydrogen atom acquires a slight positive charge and becomes attracted to negatively charged atoms nearby

(because the H atom is so small it loses out in covalent bonding and becomes slightly positive)

Front 291

Are hydrogen bonds weak or strong?

Back 291

weak

Front 292

A molecule's biological function is closely related to:

Back 292

its shape

Front 293

What is an electrolyte?

Back 293

ions in solution

Front 294

What are chemical reactions?

Back 294

the process of making and/or breaking chemical bonds, which leads to changes in the composition of matter

Front 295

What is on each side of the equation in a chemical reaction?

Back 295

reactants -----> products

Front 296

List six types of chemical reactions.

Back 296

- synthesis reactions (anabolism)
- decomposition reaction (catabolism)
- oxidation (produces cation)
- reduction (produces anion)
- dehydration reaction (condensation reaction)
- hydrolysis reaction

Front 297

What is another name for a synthesis reaction?

Back 297

anabolism

Front 298

What is a synthesis reaction (anabolism)?

Back 298

combining 2 or more atoms or molecules to form a more complex one (e.g., A + B ---> AB)

stores (chemical/potential) in the bonds

Front 299

What is another name for a decomposition reaction?

Back 299

catabolism

Front 300

What is a decomposition reaction (catabolism)?

Back 300

breaking of chemical bonds to form 2 or more products (e.g., AB ---> A + B)

releases (chemical/potential) energy contained in the bonds

Front 301

What is oxidation?

Back 301

when an atom or molecule loses electrons or hydrogen ions

OIL - oxidation is loss (cation)

Front 302

What is reduction?

Back 302

when an atom or molecule gains electrons or hydrogen ions

RIG - reduction is gain (anion)

Front 303

What is a redox reaction?

Back 303

since oxidation and reduction reactions always occur together, that is what they are sometimes referred to as

Front 304

What is dehydration synthesis/a dehydration reaction?

Back 304

bonding molecules by removing water

anabolic process by which 2 molecules are chemically bonded through the use of enzymes and loss of water

glucose + glucose + enzyme = maltose + water + enzyme

Front 305

What is another name for dehydration synthesis/reaction?

Back 305

condensation reaction

Front 306

What is hydrolysis?

Back 306

breaking a bond by adding water (a gain of water)

catabolic process by which the bonds between monomers are broken by enzymes and the addition of water (you're breaking up the water and adding it in)

sucrose + water + enzyme = glucose + fructose + enzyme

Front 307

By what means can one increase the rate of chemical reactions?

Back 307

- concentration of reactants (increase)
- agitation
- size of particles (decrease)
- temperature (increase)
- enzymes as catalysts

Hint 307

CASTE

Front 308

What makes a compound organic?

Back 308

carbon (linked to hydrogen)

carbon alone, inorganic (e.g., CO2)

Front 309

What are the properties of water?

Back 309

- main regulator of homeostasis
- most abundant inorganic compound in the body
- approximately 62% of body is water
- very stable liquid at broad range of temperatures
- very polar molecule, thus it dissolves many substances

Front 310

What is the main regulator of homeostasis?

Back 310

water

Front 311

what is the most abundant inorganic compound in the body?

Back 311

water

Front 312

Water is used in the body as:

Back 312

- solvent
- temperature regulator
- transporter
- lubricant
- cushion

Front 313

What causes surface tension in water?

Back 313

hydrogen bonding that causes water molecules to stick together

Front 314

What is a solution?

Back 314

a liquid that is a completely homogeneous mixture of two or more substances

Front 315

What is a solvent?

Back 315

the dissolving agent of a solution

Front 316

What is a solute?

Back 316

the substance dissolved in a solution

Front 317

What is an aqueous solution?

Back 317

a solution in which the solvent is water

Front 318

What is an acid?

Back 318

a substance that releases hydrogen ions (H+) when dissolved in water

(e.g., HCl ---> H+ + Cl-)
a proton donor

Front 319

What is a base?

Back 319

a substance that accepts hydrogen ions (H+) or releases hydroxide ions (OH-) when dissolved in water

NH3 + H+ ---> NH4-
KOH ---> K+ + OH-

Front 320

What is a salt?

Back 320

a substance that releases a cation other than H+ and an anion other than OH- when dissolved in water

NaCl ---> NA+ + Cl-
KBr ---> K+ + Br-

product of an acid and a base
HCl + NaOH ---> H2O + NaCl

Front 321

Acid + base =

Back 321

salt (and water)

Front 322

Another word for base/basic:

Back 322

alkaline

Front 323

What is the pH of blood?

What keeps it there?

Back 323

7.35-7.45

buffers help maintain it

e.g., if you drink coffee, your blood will be temporarily acidic, then the buffers will intervene and bring it back in line

Front 324

What is pH?

Back 324

the expression of acidity or alkalinity of a solution

the negative log of the concentration of H+ expressed in moles per liter

Front 325

What is the scale for pH?

Back 325

a scale from 0-14 to measure the acidity or alkalinity of a solution

acidic from 0- <7
alkaline from >7-14
7 is neutral

Front 326

What is an acidic solution?

Back 326

a solution in which which the pH is greater than 0 and less than 7

the lower the number the more acidic the solution and the higher the concentration of H+

I think he said <= 5 is strong acid and above that was weak acid

Front 327

What is a basic solution?

Back 327

a solution in which the pH is greater than 7 and less than 14

the higher the number the more basic the solution because the concentration of H+ is lower

Front 328

What is a neutral solution?

Back 328

a solution in which the pH is equal to 7

the concentration of H+ is equal to the concentration of OH-, and is thus neutral

Front 329

What are buffers?

Back 329

chemical substances that regulate the changes in pH and therefore help maintain homeostasis in the body

buffers are weak acids or weak bases that are added to neutralize strong bases or strong acids

Front 330

What is organic chemistry?

Back 330

the study of organic compounds

Front 331

What are organic compounds?

Back 331

compounds that contain carbon and usually hydrogen
typically large and complex, and covalently bonded

e.g., carbs - CHO, proteins (COOH carboxyls), fats (C saturated w/H on glycerol), vitamins, DNA, RNA

Front 332

What is an inorganic compound?

Back 332

compounds that do not contain carbon bonded to carbon, or carbon bonded to hydrogen

e.g., water, minerals, CO2, oxygen, nitrogen

carbon alone is inorganic
lack of carbon is inorganic

Front 333

Why are carbon atoms such versatile building blocks?

Back 333

carbon has 4 valence electrons and needs 4 covalent bonds to complete its valence shell

this makes it possible for carbon to form large, complex molecules

Front 334

What are the 6 categories of nutrients required by the body?

Back 334

- carbohydrates (organic--CHO)
- proteins (organic--COOH carboxyl)
- fats (organic--C saturated w/H on glycerol)
- vitamins (organic)
minerals - inorganic
water - inorganic

Front 335

Of what are carbohydrates comprised and what is their purpose?

Back 335

CHO

carbo + hydrate = carbon + water

major source of energy for the body

Front 336

How many types of carbohydrates are there, and what are they?

Back 336

- monosaccharides
- disaccharides
- polysaccharides

Front 337

What are monosaccharides?

Back 337

"simple sugars" - the only sugar we can absorb

contain 3-7 carbon atoms

e.g., glucose, fructose, galactose

Front 338

What are disaccharides?

Back 338

"double sugars"

combination of 2 monosaccharides

e.g.,
sucrose = glucose + fructose
maltose = glucose + glucose
lactose = glucose + galactose

Front 339

What are glucose, fructose, and galactose?

Back 339

"simple sugars" = monosaccharides

all 6-carbon (hexose) but different structures (isomers)

Front 340

What is an isomer?

Back 340

variances in structure of a compound

same formula, different arrangement of atoms
(e.g., glucose and fructose are both hexose, but formed differently)

Front 341

Why do sugars dissolve in water so readily?

Back 341

their covalent polar bonds are easily broken in water

C6H12O6 = C + H2O

Front 342

How are the bonds of disaccharides broken into monosaccharides so they can be absorbed?

Back 342

by an enzyme

sucrase breaks the glucose + fructose bond of sucrose

lactase breaks the glucose + galactose bond of lactose

maltase breaks the glucose + glucose bond of maltose

Front 343

What are polysaccharides?

Back 343

combinations of more than 2 monosaccharides

e.g., starch, glycogen (in muscles & liver), cellulose, heparin (anticoagulant)

Front 344

How are carboydrates catabolized?

Back 344

from polysaccharides ----> disaccharides ---> monosaccharides with the use of enzymes at each step

Front 345

What are lipids?

Back 345

a combination of CHO, but in different ratios than carbohydrates

Front 346

Lipids may contain other elements such as:

Back 346

phosphorous and nitrogen

Front 347

What are some lipid categories?

Back 347

- triglycerides
- phospholipids
- steroids
- eicosanoids

Front 348

What are triglycerides?

Back 348

most abundant form of lipids, both in the diet and in the body

neutral fats (pH = 7)

3 fatty acids (saturated or unsaturated) on backbone of glycerol

Front 349

What are saturated fatty acids?

Back 349

- no carbon=carbon double bonds
- full of hydrogen (saturated)
- solid at room temperature b/c they are straight and stackable
- found in animal fat
- "slow killer"

Front 350

What are unsaturated fatty acids?

Back 350

- one or more carbon=carbon double bonds, where they bend
- bend prevents stacking, thus liquid at room temperature
- 1 bend = monounsaturated fat
- more than 1 bend = polyunsaturated fat

Front 351

What are phospholipids?

Back 351

the main component of cell membranes

composed of glycerol, 2 fatty acids, phosphate group

Front 352

How do phospholipids form the cell membrane?

Back 352

in a bilayer,
hydrophilic phosphorus heads facing out
hydrophobic lipid tails together

Front 353

What are steroids?

Back 353

lipids that are composed of four fused carbon rings

e.g., cholesterol, bile salts, testosterone, estrogen, progesterone, corticosteroid hormones (aldosterone, prednisone)

Front 354

What are eicosanoids?

Back 354

lipids that are chemical messengers between cells

Front 355

Name some eicosanoids.

Back 355

- prostaglandins - cause contraction of smooth muscles
- leukotrienes - involved in allergic and inflammatory responses
- thromboxone - clotting promoter

Front 356

What is a protein?

Back 356

a covalently bonded chain of (more than 100) amino acids

composed of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and always nitrogen

may contain sulfur, phosphorus, and iron

Front 357

What are dipeptides, tripeptides, and polypeptides?

Back 357

- a chain of 2 amino acids
- a chain of 3 amino acids
- a chain of 15-100 amino acids

and, of course, a protein is a chain of more than 100 amino acids

Front 358

What are amino acids?

Back 358

the building blocks of protein

central carbon bonded to:
- amino group (NH2)
- hydrogen (H)
- carboxyl group (COOH)
- variable side chain (R)

Front 359

How many different "R" groups are there?

Back 359

20, which means there are 20 different amino acids

Front 360

What are essential amino acids?

How many are there?

Back 360

those that cannot be manufactured by the body and must be consumed in the diet

9 (11?)

Front 361

What are nonessential amino acids?

How many are there?

Back 361

amino acids that can be manufactured in the body, and don't have to be consumed in the diet

11 (9?)

Front 362

How are amino acids joined together?

Back 362

by a peptide bond

dehydration reaction bonds carboxyl carbon (COOH) of one amino acid to the nitrogen (NH) of the next amino acid

Front 363

How many levels of protein structure are there?

Back 363

4
- primary structure
- secondary structure
- tertiary structure
- quaternary structure

Front 364

What is the primary structure of a protein?

Back 364

the list of the amino acids
also called the sequence of the amino acids

sequence is determined by the DNA in the nucleus of the cells

Front 365

What makes you, you?

Back 365

the DNA in the nucleus of your cells, which tells amino acids how to sequence to form proteins

Front 366

Alterations in the sequence of amino acids may cause:

Back 366

change in the functioning of the protein (which has serious consequences)

Front 367

What is the secondary structure of a protein?

Back 367

the twisting or folding of the chain of amino acids

Front 368

What holds the secondary structure of a protein together?

Back 368

hydrogen bonds

Front 369

What are the 2 types of secondary structures of a protein?

Back 369

alpha helix and beta sheet (pleating)

Front 370

What is the tertiary structure of a protein?

Back 370

folding and coiling of the protein chain into an overall globular shape due to interactions between "R" groups or between "R" groups and water

Front 371

What types of bonds form tertiary structures?

Back 371

covalent and/or ionic

Front 372

What is the quaternary structure of a protein?

Back 372

interaction of two or more polypeptide chains to form a complete protein

Front 373

All 4 levels of protein structure must be maintained for the protein to _____ ____.

Back 373

function properly

Front 374

What is the key to a protein's function?

Back 374

the protein's conformation (shape)

Front 375

What is denaturation of a protein?

Back 375

drastic change in the conformation of a protein which may render it useless for its original function

Front 376

How may proteins be denatured?

Back 376

by changes in

- temperature (e.g., cooking egg white)
- pH change

Front 377

What are some types of proteins?

Back 377

- antibodies (protect against disease)
- hemoglobin (carry oxygen in blood)
- enzymes (control chemical activity)
- polypeptides (many amino acids bound together)

Front 378

What do enzymes do?

Back 378

- speed up rate of chemical reactions in the body by lowering the amount of activation energy needed
- can be reused--are not consumed or permanently changed in the reaction
- are very substrate-specific

also called catalysts

Front 379

What are nucleic acids?

Back 379

organic compounds composed of nucleotides

(so named b/c they are in the nucleus of every cell)

Front 380

What are the three components of nucleotides?

Back 380

- one or more phosphate groups
- a 5-carbon sugar (ribose or deoxyribose)
- nitrogenous base

Front 381

What are the nitrogenous bases associated with DNA? What changes in RNA?

Back 381

(The Pyrimidines)
- cytosine (C)
- uracil (U) - RNA
- thymine (T) - DNA

(The Purines)
- adenine (A)
- guanine (G)

Hint 381

-C-
UT = Pyrimidines

Purines - AG

Front 382

DNA is the major component of:

Back 382

chromosomes, the hereditary information contained in the nucleus of cells

Front 383

DNA controls:

Back 383

activity of cells by controlling protein synthesis

Front 384

DNA is a double-stranded helix with what type(s) of bonding?

Back 384

- covalent bonds between the components of the nucleotides and

- hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases to hold the 2 strands together

Front 385

Which nitrogenous bases bond in DNA? In RNA?

Back 385

DNA -
-- adenine with thymine, and
-- cytosine with guanine

RNA -
-- adenine with uracil
-- cytosine with guanine

Front 386

The sequence of nucleotides determines:

Back 386

heredity

Front 387

A change in DNA sequence (mutation) may produce:

Back 387

a hereditary change

(not all mutations change the final product--the protein)

Front 388

What sugar is contained in DNA? In RNA?

Back 388

- deoxyribose

- ribose

Front 389

What is RNA?

Back 389

a single-stranded molecule involved in protein synthesis in cells

Front 390

What are the 4 main types of RNA?

Back 390

- messenger RNA (mRNA)
- transfer RNA (tRNA)
- ribosomal RNA (rRNA)
- nuclear RNA (nRNA)

Front 391

What is ATP?

Back 391

adenosine triphosphate

the energy molecule for cells

Front 392

How do cells use ATP?

Back 392

cells store energy as ATP and use it to perform cell functions

when needed, ATP is hydrolyzed using enzymes to form ADP and an inorganic phosphate group (triphosphate to diphosphate)

Front 393

ATP + H2O ---->

Back 393

ADP + Pi + energy for work/heat

Front 394

Of what is ATP composed?

Back 394

- adenine
- ribose (5-carbon sugar)
- 3 phosphate groups (tri-)

Front 395

Where is ATP manufactured?

Back 395

most ATP is synthesized in the mitochondria in a series of reactions called cellular respiration

Front 396

The smallest quantity of an element which still reflects or possesses its characteristic is called:

Back 396

an atom

Front 397

If someone decided to starve himself, he would likely develop

Back 397

metabolic acidosis

Front 398

What is respiratory alkalosis?

Back 398

too much CO2 elevates blood pH

caused by hyperventilating

Front 399

The most abundant polysaccharide in our diet is

Back 399

starch

Front 400

We cannot digest cellulose, but why do we need it in our diet?

Back 400

it is the dietary fiber needed to assist digestion and it becomes the bulk that assists bowel movements

Front 401

Why are some people lactose intolerant?

Back 401

they lack an adequate amount of the enzyme lactase and therefore cannot break lactose down into its usable monosaccharide components

Front 402

When the liver synthesizes glycogen from glucose, the process is

anabolism or catabolism?

Back 402

anabolism

Front 403

Dehydration reaction derives from

a. anabolism
b. catabolism
c. glycolysis
d. decomposition

Back 403

anabolism

Front 404

The linear sequences of amino acids gives rise to _____ ______ structure.

Back 404

three dimensional

Front 405

All proteins contain carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen. (T/F)

Back 405

true

Front 406

Are lipids hydrophobic or hydrophilic? Substantiate your answer.

Back 406

hydrophobic

they are insoluble in water due to their nonpolar covalent bonds

Front 407

The basic unit for nucleic acids is ________

Back 407

nucleotides

Front 408

What are the components of a typical nucleotide?

Back 408

- nitrogen base,
- 5-carbon sugar called deoxyribose or ribose, and
- phosphate group

Front 409

What nucleic acid is made up of a fragment of genes?

Back 409

DNA

Front 410

Name four organic macromolecules.

Back 410

- carbohydrates
- proteins
- lipids
- vitamins

Front 411

Two examples of eicosanoids:

Back 411

- prostaglandins
- leukotrienes

Front 412

Is prostaglandin a lipid?

Back 412

yes

Front 413

All enzymes are carbohydrates? (T/F)

Back 413

false, they are proteins

Front 414

Are enzymes useful for chemical reaction?

Back 414

yes, because almost all chemical reactions in a biological cell need enzymes in order to occur at rates sufficient for life; enzymes are proteins that catalyze (increase the rates of) chemical reactions; in enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process (substrates) are converted into different molecules, called products

they lower energy needed for reactions

Front 415

What molecule, produced in the mitochondria, generates energy?

Back 415

ATP (adenosine triphosphate)

Front 416

Give 2 examples of hexose.

Back 416

6-carbon sugar

galactose and glucose

Front 417

What is the purpose of RNA?

Back 417

protein synthesis

Front 418

What is the purpose of DNA?

Back 418

genetic material

Front 419

List some lipids

Back 419

- triglycerides (saturated and unsaturated fatty acids)
- phospholipids
- steroids
- eicosanoids

Front 420

What is a gene?

Back 420

a segment of DNA