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259 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is an entire genetic complement of a cell or virus
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genome
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Segment of DNA that codes for a product
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genes
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What is the DNA that connects genes
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genome
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What do RNA viruses use in their genomes
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RNA
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WHat is generally 1 circular double strand DNA
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bacterial chrmosome
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What holds DNA together?
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RNA and protein
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What is a small circular double strand DNA that is thousands to millions bp
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plasmid
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WHat is DNA measured by
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base pairs
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When do plasmids replicate
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independently
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What carries genes but are not essential for normal growth
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plasmid
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What does not tie into cell replication
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plasmid
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What is a F factor plasmid
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fertility for conjugation
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What is an R factor plasmid
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resistance/ contains drug resistant gene
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What is the bactriocin factor?
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produced by bacteria to inhibit relatives
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What may carry toxin or enzyme that causes virus?
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virulence plasmid
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Eukaryotic nuclear chromosome
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not in bacterial division
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What is typically one or more linear chromosome inside nucleus?
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eukaryotic nuclear chromosome
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What does DNA wrap around
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histones
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What does DNA wrapped around histones cause
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bead shaped nucleosomes
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What do nucleosomes do?
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clump with other proteins to make chromatin fiber
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What is a chromatin fiber prior to mitosis?
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a pair of bar shaped chromosome
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Where are plasmids found for eukaryotes?
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very rare only one some fungi and protozoa
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What type of DNA is in mitochondria and chloroplasts?
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prokaryotic
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WHat is the basic nucleic acid structure?
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polymer of nucleotides
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How do single strands bind together?
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H bonds
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What carbon has the phosphate?
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C5
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What Carbon has the nitrogenous base?
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C1
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What are the purines?
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adenine and guanine
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WHat are teh pyrimidines?
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cytosine and thymine and uracil
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What are in DNA
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A, T, C, G
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What are in RNA
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A, U, C, G
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What nitrogenous bases are double rings?
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purines
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WHat is on 1 end?
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nitrogenous base
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On 5 end of the nucleotide?
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phosphate group
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WHat is the actual building block of DNA?
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deoxyribonucleotide triphosphate
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What occurs when you break the bonds of deoxyribonucleotide triphosphate?
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Get energy dGTP is used for energy in biosynthesis
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What end grows?
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3'
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What does DNA polymerase do?
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synthesizes DNA by adding DNA nucleotide to the hydroxy group at the 3' end of a nucleic acid
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What end is at the 3' end?
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OH
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What does DNA join?
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nucleic acids, but not nucleotides
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Can DNA polymerase join 2 independent nucleotides together?
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no
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Could DNA polymerase add nucleotides to both ends of a nucleic acid?
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no only 3' end
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DNA replication requires energy. Where does the energy come from?
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by breaking high energy bond from dGTP
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What pairs together?
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G and C (DNA and RNA), A and U (RNA), A and T (DNA)
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What relationship do the base pairs have?
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antiparallel
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What is semiconservative replication
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each daugheter strand of DNA contains one mother strand and one newly synthesized strand
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What does DNA replication use
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template, building blocks, enzymes, stabilizing proteins
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What are the building blocks of DNA
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deoxyribonucleotide triphosphase, dATP, dGTP, dTTP, dCTP
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WHat are the enzymes used for DNA replication?
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gyrase, helicase, primase (RNA polymerase), DNA polymerase III, DNA polymerase I, ligase
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WHat is the origin?
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where DNA replication begins
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Replication forks
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where ds DNA separate
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Termination
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where two replication forks meet
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WHat is the replication fork like
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a zipper
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What unwinds the DNA supertwist
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DNA gyrase
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Breaks H bonds between the double strand
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DNA helicase
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WHat do ssDNA binding proteins do?
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bind to both ssDNA and prevent them from joining together
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HOw does the lagging strand grow
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in parts
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WHat does primase do
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synthesizes a short piece of RNA primer that is complementary to DNA template
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WHat does DNA dependent DNA polymerase do?
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synthesize DNA by adding DNA nucleotides to the 3' end of the primer, then synthesizes DNA continuously by extending the 3' end
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lays foundation of primer for RNA
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primase/ RNase
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From whast end does DNA grow
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3' end
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Will you see a primer in the end product?
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no, it is chopped off by DNA polymerase I
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WHat does primase do
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makes primer
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DNA polymerase III
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adds nucleotide to primer/leading strand
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DNA polymerase I
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chops off primer when reaching 5'end
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What joinds the ends
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ligase
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WHat is the strand that grows continuously
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leading strand
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synthesized in pieces
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lagging strand
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pieces of the lagging strand
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okazaki fragments
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On the lagging strand, what extends DNA
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DNA polymerase III
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What removes primer
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DNA polymerase I
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What adds on after primer removed
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DNA polymerase III
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WHat joins the 3' end of the new DNA to the 5' end of previous DNA
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ligase
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Methylation
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adding a few CH3 groups to a few bases on DNA
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Point of methylation
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control gene expression, initation of DNA replication, AND distinguish self DNA from foreign DNA
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RNA
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polymer of ribonucleotides
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What makes up ribonucleotide
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phosphate group, ribose, one of 4 nitrogenous bases
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What is paired with TACG in DNA to RNA
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AUGC
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RNA to RNA: AUGC
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UACG
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3 types of RNA
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messenger RNA, ribosomal RNA, transfer RNA
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WHat is mRNA for
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direct protein synthesis
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what carries genetic code
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mRNA
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What is needed for protein synthesis and found in ribosome
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ribosomal RNA
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What carries amino acids and mRNA for protein synthesis
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transfer RNA
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What is transcription
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using a DNA template to synthesize RNA according to gene sequences
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WHat is a unique sequence of DNA that codes for a functional product
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gene
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WHat is mRNA complementary for?
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one strand of DNA
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What is making RNA from DNA?
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transcription
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making DNA from DNA template
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replication
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WHat does DNA dependent RNA polymerase do?
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recognizes and binds to promoter on the DNA template and separates ds DNA
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What does sigma factor lock?
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the enzyme to the promoter
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WHat is the specific DNA sequence that ends transcription
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terminator
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WHat does RNA polymerase do?
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polymerizes RNA by binding to promoter w/ DNA template
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What does promoter do?
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specific sequence of DNA before teh gene that allows the enzyme (RNA polymerase) to bind and begin transcription
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What does sigma factor do?
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helps RNA polymerase to bind to promoter
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What occurs in RNA elongation
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sigma factor released, RNA polymerase synthesizes RNA strand 5'-3' that is complementary to DNA template
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WHat doesnt need a primer
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RNA polymerase
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What begins at promoter and ends at terminator
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gene
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When is RNA polymerase released
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when it reaches the termination sequence on the template
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When is RNA released
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after reaches termination and RNA polymerase is released
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What occurs after termination of transcription
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ssDNA close into double helix
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Translation
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syntehsis of peptide according to sequence of nucelotides in mRNA
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WHat does translation involve
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mRNA, tRNA, ribosome
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WHat carries genetic codes (codens)
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mRNA
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What determines what amino acids to use?
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mRNA
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Segment of 3 nucleotides on mRNA
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coden
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WHat does each coden code for?
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specific amino acid
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WHat is start coden
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AUG
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What is first codon to initiate translation
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AUG: start coden
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What is the coden that do not code for any amino acids but signal ending of translation
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nonsense codents (UAA, UAG, UGA)
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What occurs after termination of transcription
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ssDNA close into double helix
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Translation
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syntehsis of peptide according to sequence of nucelotides in mRNA
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WHat does translation involve
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mRNA, tRNA, ribosome
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WHat carries genetic codes (codens)
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mRNA
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What determines what amino acids to use?
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mRNA
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Segment of 3 nucleotides on mRNA
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coden
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WHat does each coden code for?
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specific amino acid
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WHat is start coden
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AUG
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What is first codon to initiate translation
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AUG: start coden
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What is the coden that do not code for any amino acids but signal ending of translation
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nonsense codents (UAA, UAG, UGA)
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WHat is made due to gene instructions
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protein product
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Always first coden in mRNA
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AUG
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Always first peptide in protein
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methionine
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amino acid that comes from AUG coden
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methionine
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WHat binds to mRNA
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anticoden of transfer rna
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WHat brings amino acid to mRNA
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anticoden of tRNA
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What brings the correct amino acid to the corresponding coden on mRNA
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transfer RNA
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What do you use to match with complementary codens on mRNA?
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anticoden
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What are 2 subunites assembled on RNA
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ribosome
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What allows binding between the coden and anticoden
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ribosome
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WHat is the E site
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exit
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WHat is P site of ribosome
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peptide
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What is A site of ribosome
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amino acid
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When the ribosome moves to a nonsense coden and it releases the ribosome, polypeptide, and tRNA from the mRNA
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termination
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When does termination occur
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when ribosome reaches nonsense coden
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What do multiple ribosomes do?
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read a single mRNA at the same time
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WHat includes a piece of DNA
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transcription
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What includes the whole DNA
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replication
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What replaces a piece of DNA
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transcription
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WHat is making DNA from DNA template
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replication
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Making RNA from DNA template
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transcription
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making polypeptide from mRNA
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translation
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What makes only a piece of RNA
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translation
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What enzymes usually use same promoter?
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do the same thing
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What is the region that codes for coden for mRNA
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coding region
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What part of DNA is cut out in eukaryotes?
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introns
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What is combined in eukaryotes to make DNA?
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exons
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What is differences between eu and pro- DNA?
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eukaryoties have waste of DNA< pre mRNA, and more complex
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How many genes are expressed all the tiem
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75 percent
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When are some genes turned on
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as needed
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WHat occurs when a gene is turned off
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existing mRNA is degraded in 2 minutes and protein cannot be synthesizes
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WHat is a molecule of mRNA that changes its shape in reponse to a change in the cell
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riboswitch
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What does riboswitch do?
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blocks ribosome and translation of peptide
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What is short interference RNA or siRNA or antisense RNA
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short RNA that is completementary to segment and when it binds to its target, it inactivates it
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Operon
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a segment of DNA which consists of promoter, operator, series of geners, termination sequence
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How is gene expression of operon turned off?
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operator on operon is blocked by repressor, the RNA polymerase cannot move from promoter to genes
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What is an inducible operon
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lac operon
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WHat contains 3 genes that code for enzymes needed for lactose degradation
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lac operon
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When is lac operon shut off
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when lactose is present
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What occurs in lac operon
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regulatory gene codes for a repressor protein that blocks operator
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WHen is lac operon on?
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when lactose is present adn glucose is not
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WHat occurs with lac operon on?
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lac binds to repressor, inactivated repressor falls off operator, RNA polymerase can reach the genes and 3 enzymes produced
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What is the substance of the 3 lac degradation enzymes?
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lactose
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What is the inducer for teh 3 lac degradation enzymes?
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lactose
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WHat is a repressible operon?
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trp operon
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What can synthesize all amino acids
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E. coli
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What occurs when an amino acid is present
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E coli will use the amino acid and shut down the biosynthesis of this amino acid
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WHat does the Trp operon carry
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5 genes that code for 5 enzymes needed for trp biosynthesis
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What will E. coli do if provide an amino acid?
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use it rather than making it by itself
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What controls the trp operon?
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regulatory gene outside the operon
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WHen is lac operon on?
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when lactose is present adn glucose is not
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WHat occurs with lac operon on?
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lac binds to repressor, inactivated repressor falls off operator, RNA polymerase can reach the genes and 3 enzymes produced
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What is the substance of the 3 lac degradation enzymes?
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lactose
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What is the inducer for teh 3 lac degradation enzymes?
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lactose
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WHat is a repressible operon?
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trp operon
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What can synthesize all amino acids
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E. coli
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What occurs when an amino acid is present
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E coli will use the amino acid and shut down the biosynthesis of this amino acid
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WHat does the Trp operon carry
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5 genes that code for 5 enzymes needed for trp biosynthesis
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What will E. coli do if provide an amino acid?
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use it rather than making it by itself
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What controls the trp operon?
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regulatory gene outside the operon
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WHen is lac operon on?
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when lactose is present adn glucose is not
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WHat occurs with lac operon on?
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lac binds to repressor, inactivated repressor falls off operator, RNA polymerase can reach the genes and 3 enzymes produced
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What is the substance of the 3 lac degradation enzymes?
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lactose
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What is the inducer for teh 3 lac degradation enzymes?
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lactose
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WHat is a repressible operon?
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trp operon
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What can synthesize all amino acids
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E. coli
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What occurs when an amino acid is present
|
E coli will use the amino acid and shut down the biosynthesis of this amino acid
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WHat does the Trp operon carry
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5 genes that code for 5 enzymes needed for trp biosynthesis
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What will E. coli do if provide an amino acid?
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use it rather than making it by itself
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What controls the trp operon?
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regulatory gene outside the operon
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What does regulator gene of trp operon code for
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inactive repressor protein
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When is trp operon shut off
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when trp is present
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inactive repressor +trp=
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active repressor
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regulating condition of inducible
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presence of substrate: catabolic
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regulating condition of repressible operon
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absence of product: anabolic
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permanent change in nucleotide sequence
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mutation
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frequency of mutation
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10 to 7th
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What induces mutation
|
mutagens: radiation, chemicals
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What is it when one nucleotide is substituted by another nucleotide
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point mutation
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WHat are teh 3 results of point mutation
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silent mutation, missense mutation, nonsense mutation
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What is an insertion of deletion of a nucleotide in DNA
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frameshift mutation
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What occurs in frameshift
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ALL mRNA codens are changed
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What is silent mutation
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after mutation, new coden codes for same amino acid
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What is missense mutation
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after mutation, new coden codes for a different amino acid
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What is nonsense mutation
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after mutation, the new coden is the stop coden
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What is the most harmful
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nonsense mutation and frameshift mutation
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What may cause protein to not be functional at all
|
nonsense mutation
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What occurs in frameshift mutation
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after insertion or deletion of nucleotide, all mRNA codens are changed LETHAL
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What can cause mutation?
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chemical: nucleotide analogs, nucleotide altering chemicals, frame shift mutagins- Radiation: UV light
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WHat is a chemical mutagen
|
nucleotide analog that incorporates into DNA during replication by mistake and causes incorrect pairing in subsequence replication
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What is a analog of thymine?
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5' bromouracil
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What is nitrous acid?
|
deaminable A-T analog (pair with C instead of T)
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Whats a frame shift agent
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acridine
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What does chemical frame shift mutagens do
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inserted itself between base pairs, distort dna structure, and fram shift
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What is an ionizing radiation mutagen
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x ray gamma ray
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What is non ionizing radiation mutagen
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UV light 260-265 nm
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What are T-T dimers
|
additional chemical bond that forms between two T-T dimers that causes shift in shape
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What is light repair for Thymine dimer
|
photolyase
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photolyase
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DNA repair enzyme activated by visible light and breaks the bond between T T dimers
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Dark repair
|
operates in light or dark: not as good as light
|
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Base excision repair
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uses DNA polymerase to fill in a gap
|
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MIsmatch repair enzymes
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scan newly syntehsized DNA to remove and replace mismatched base
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SOS response
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DNA polyermerases IV and V synthesize DNA to repair badly damanged DNA: mutation
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HOw does radiation cause mutation
|
repair enzymes such as DNA polymerase I often makes mistakes by placing DNA nucleotides in the repaired DNA causing mutation
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What are teh 3 types of gene transfer among prokaryote
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transformation, transduction, conjugation
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What is horizontal gene transfer
|
from donor cells DNA to recipients cell
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WHat si a recipient cell acquires genes from free floating DNA in environment
|
transformation
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Is there direct contact in transformation
|
no
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Do bacteria cells have sexual reproduction
|
no
|
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When does transformation occur
|
recipients cell absorbes free DNA when in competent state (late log phase)
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Competence
|
a period during which the bacterial cell wall and cytoplasmic membrane become prous and allow transforming DNA to enter cell
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Can a normal cell receive dna
|
no, only competent
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WHat is cocci surrounded by capsule in mouse
|
virulent: cause disease
|
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diplococci capsule nonvirulent
|
did nothing
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What occurs in Griffiths observation
|
live cells adapt genes from dead cells and become virulent
|
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What is a virus that infects bacteria
|
bacteriophage
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What is DNA carried by a virus (bacteriophage) from donor to recipient
|
transduction
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What occurs in transduction
|
during assemblyof phage DNA, bacterial DNA incorporated into phage
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What is a phage carrying DNA
|
trasducting phage
|
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Does bacteriophage kill new host?
|
no, does not have entire copy of viral DNA
|
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What is generalized transduction by lytic bacteriophage
|
transducting phasge carries random DNA segment from donor to recipient
|
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What is specialized transduction by temperate bacteriophage
|
transducting phage carries a spcific DNA segment from donor to recipient
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What is conjugation
|
donor cell contacts recipient cell with a sex pils, and the donors DNA migrates to recipient directly
|
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What is F+
|
has fertility plasmid
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F-
|
no fertility genes
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What does F plasmid carry?
|
fertility genes
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What cells can make sex pilus?
|
only those with fertility genes
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WHat occurs between conjugation of F+ and F-?
|
both are F+ in end just sends copy of DNA not all
|
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HFr cell
|
high frequency recombination cell
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What is a cell with F plasmid integrated into chrosome?
|
High frequency recombination cell
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Can HFr turn back into F+?
|
yes
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What does conjugation of Hfr and F- take?
|
about 100 min: most times conjugation is interrupted first
|
|
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WHich has contact?
|
conjugation
|
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Sexual reproduction
|
2 gametes fuse to make zygote
|
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Conjugation
|
donor's DNA migrates to recipient cell
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What is a jumping gene
|
transposon
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What is a jumping gene that moves from one location on DNA to another
|
transposon
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Where is transposon found
|
pro- and eu-
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What is inverted repeat at both DNA ends
|
palidromic sequence
|
