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153 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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number of essential elements
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25
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Carbon decays to?
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Nitrogen.
nucleus decays spontaneously, giving off E |
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Isotope used as DNA tracers
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3H
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concentration of H+ ions in pure water @ 25 deg
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10-7
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CO2 absorbed by ocean becomes what?
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Carbonic Acid H2CO3
Lowers pH. Absorps 25% of all man made CO2. Reduces carbonate ion CO32− available for calcification |
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What is Calcification
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formation of Calcium Carbonate CaCO3
CO3,2- is a oxyanion |
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what react with H2O in air to form acid rain
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Sulfate Ion SO42- and Nitrate Ion NO3- give a pH of ~5.2
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pH of sea water
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~8 slightly basic
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define isomer
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compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas. Isomers do not necessarily share similar properties
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cis isomer?
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Same side.
Stereoisomerism describing the orientation of functional groups within a molecule. In general, such isomers contain double bonds, which cannot rotate, but they can also arise from ring structures, wherein the rotation of bonds is greatly restricted. |
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trans isomer?
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Opposite sides.
Stereoisomerism describing the orientation of functional groups within a molecule. Such isomers contain double bonds, which cannot rotate. |
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one of two stereoisomers that are mirror images of each other
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Enantiomer
ə-nan-tee-ə-mər S left or R right |
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Carbohydrate is an
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Saccharide = organic compound which consists only of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, with a hydrogen:oxygen atom ratio of 2:1
Carbohydrates can be viewed as hydrates of carbon, hence their name. Structurally however, it is more accurate to view them as polyhydroxy aldehydes and ketones. |
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define isomer
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compounds with the same molecular formula but different structural formulas. Isomers do not necessarily share similar properties
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cis isomer?
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Same side.
Stereoisomerism describing the orientation of functional groups within a molecule. In general, such isomers contain double bonds, which cannot rotate, but they can also arise from ring structures, wherein the rotation of bonds is greatly restricted. |
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trans isomer?
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Opposite sides.
Stereoisomerism describing the orientation of functional groups within a molecule. In general, such isomers contain double bonds, which cannot rotate, but they can also arise from ring structures, wherein the rotation of bonds is greatly restricted. |
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one of two stereoisomers that are mirror images of each other
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Enantiomer
ə-nan-tee-ə-mər Sleft and Right |
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Glucose monomers
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6 carbon ring
Alternate OH from C2 C6 outside ring |
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glycosidic bond
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is a type of covalent bond that joins a carbohydrate (sugar) molecule to another group, which may or may not be another carbohydrate
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alpha-1,4 linkage
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This glycosidic bond links C#1 of the left-hand glucose molecule to C#4 of the right-hand glucose molecule.
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Helical glucose has which bond types
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alpha-1,4 linkage
Glycosidic bond forming a helical and eventually granule structure |
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Glucose formula
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C6H12O6
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Ribose formula
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C5H10O5
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what part of the linear saccharide reacts to form a hemiacetal with a new C-O-C bridge
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Aldehyde C=OH and Hydrohyl OH-
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For the α anomer of glucose, note the position of the hydroxyl group
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OH group down from C1
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For the β anomer of glucose, note the position of the hydroxyl group
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OH group from C1 is in same orientaton ac C6 CH2OH
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Formula for Galactose and Fructose
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C6H12O6
same as glucose |
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Aldose sugar
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MONOSACCHARIDE
Aldehyde C=OH |
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Ketose sugar
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Carbonyl forms a Keytone CC=OC
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Glycogen define
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A substance deposited in bodily tissues as a store of carbohydrates. It is a polysaccharide that forms glucose on hydrolysis
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Glycogen is found where
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Glycogen is found in the form of granules in the cytosol/cytoplasm in animals and fungal cells, with the primary energy stores being held in adipose tissue
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Glycogen is made where
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Glycogen is made primarily by the liver and the muscles, but can also be made by glycogenesis within the brain and stomach
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Structure of Glycogen
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core protein of glycogenin is surrounded by branches of glucose units. The entire globular granule may contain approximately 30,000 glucose units
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Links and branches of Glycogen
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α1→4 links
α1→6 branches |
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Cellulose linkage?
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β(1→4) linked
straight chain |
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Cellulose define
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An insoluble substance that is the main constituent of plant cell walls. It is a polysaccharide consisting of linear chains of glucose monomers
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Difference between cellulose and starch
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Cellulose is a straight chain polymer: unlike starch, no coiling or branching occurs, and the molecule adopts an extended and rather stiff rod-like conformation
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Glycogen is cleaved by?
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Glycogen PhosphorylASE.
Attaches a phospate group |
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glycosidic bond is a what reaction
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dehydration or condensation
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B glucose c1 OH group is...
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Pointing up
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Structure of Chitin
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(C8H13O5N)n
contains N and 6 carbons |
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Linkage of Chitin
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covalent β-1,4 linkages
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Nearly all double bonds occurring in a fatty acid are?
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Cis
same side of isomer |
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cis double bonds on a fatty acid what?
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prevent molecule from tightly packing close enough to solidify
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Hydrogenated chains on a fatty acid produce what?
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trans double bonds
peanut butter and marg |
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Omega 3 structure
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cis double bond at 3rd carbon.
essential |
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Steriods?
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Lipids.
Characterised by a carbon skeleton with four fused rings |
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Lipids are amphiphilic, explain
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They are a chemical compound which possessing both hydrophilic (water-loving) and lipophilic (fat-loving) properties.
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Defense protein
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antibody
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ovalbumin
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storage protein in eggs
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hormone protein
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insulin
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3 motor proteins
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Myosin, Kinesin, Dynein
die knee in |
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Transport protein
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Hemoglobin
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structure protein
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collagen
main component of connective tissue, and is the most abundant protein in mammals. found in fibrous tissues such as tendon, ligament and skin, and is also abundant in cornea, cartilage, bone, blood vessels, the gut, and intervertebral disc |
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triacylglycerol has 3 links, what are they?
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Ester
C=OOC |
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What is a peptide bond?
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a COVALENT chemical bond formed between two molecules when the carboxyl group of one molecule reacts with the amino group of the other molecule, thereby releasing a molecule of water (H2O)
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is a polypeptide a protein
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No
Proteins require a unique shape tertiary structure |
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Endorphins
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Natural signalling proteins
Bind to receptor on brain surface |
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What mimics endorphine
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morphine and heroin
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two form of secondary structure?
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alpha helix and beta pleated sheets
H Bonds between atoms of polypeptide backbone |
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What bond type form secondary structure?
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H bonds
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What is involved in tertiary structure
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amino acid side chains
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Types of tertiary structure bonds
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1- hydrophobic = van der walls once formed
2- H bonds 3- ionic bonds 4- covalent = disulfide bridges |
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which amino acids are switched in sickle cell anemia
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Glutamic acid (hydrophilic) is replaced by Valine (hydrophobic)
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Which subunit of Haemoglobin is affected by Sickle cell
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beta globin
gene point mutation affects the beta subunit |
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molecule that assists in proper folding of other proteins
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chaperonins
require ATP |
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which technique doesn't require crystalisation
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NMR - Nuclear magnetic resonance
uses spectroscopy investigation and measurement of spectra produced when matter interacts with or emits electromagnetic radiation |
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explain the Meselson-Stahl experiment
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Semiconservative replication means that when the double stranded DNA helix was replicated, each of the two double stranded DNA helices consisted of one strand coming from the original helix and one newly synthesized
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using 15N, the non radioactive isotope of 14N
E.coli was cultured in 15N and then transferred to 14N centrifuged to determine weight difference |
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DNA is read in which direction?
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3' to 5'
bottom to top in our LHS drawing |
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DNA is polymerised in which direction
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5' to 3'
PO4 group at 5' Carbon attaches to the OH group on the 3' carbon |
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Eukaryote transcription differs how
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we have pre-mRNA before mRNA
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what is pre-mRNA
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Precursor mRNA (pre-mRNA) is an immature single strand of messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA). pre-mRNA is synthesized from a DNA template in the cell nucleus by transcription
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Once pre-mRNA has been completely processed, it is termed "mature messenger RNA", "mature mRNA", or simply "mRNA"
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mRNA is coded from which strand
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template strand
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mRNA is identical to which strand
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coding strand
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Codon?
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Sequence of 3 nucleotides which together form a genetic code
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Why is the codon code degenerate
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64 possible combos produce 20 amino acids
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which enzyme polymerises RNA from DNA and what is this process called
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RNA polymerase
an enzyme that produces RNA. In cells RNAp is needed for constructing RNA chains from DNA genes as templates, a process called transcription. |
transcription
the process of creating a complementary RNA copy of a sequence of DNA |
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Which motor protein separates complimentary strands
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Helicase (enzyme)
move directionally along a nucleic acid phosphodiester backbone, separating two annealed nucleic acid strands |
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what is a cotransporter?
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an integral membrane protein that is involved in SECONDARY ACTIVE transport. It works by binding to two MOLECULES or IONS at a time and using the gradient of one solute's concentration to force the other molecule or ion AGAINST its gradient.
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what is an antiporter
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a cotransporter that move entities in opposite direction
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what is a synporter
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a cotransporter that move entities in same direction
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Uniporter?
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Uniporter carrier proteins work by binding to one molecule of solute at a time and transporting it WITH the solute gradient.
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how can a Uniporter be activated
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Voltage
Stress - physical pressure Ligand |
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four properties of water as a result of H Bonding
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cohesion (adhesion)
insulation ( floating ice) higher specific heat capacity/temp moderator versatile solvent |
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why is cohesion important
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transport of water and nutrients in plants
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why is waters insulation properties important
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prevents cold oceans from freezing and allows life in oceans to survive and evolve
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why is a high specific heat capacity important in water
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maintains constant temperature to preserve cellular structures and prevent protein denaturation
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why is water an important and versitile solvent
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allows buffering of cellular contents and wide ranging biochemistry
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adenine has what functional group?
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NH2
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Guanine has which two functional groups?
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=O and NH2
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difference between Thymine and Uracil
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Thymine has two =O and a CH3 group.
Uracil just has two =O's |
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name cytosine's two functional groups
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=O and NH2
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what is the consequence of deoxyribose missing the O
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Makes sugar backbone more stable
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what is a hypothesis
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is a proposed explanation for a phenomenon
to be tested by scientific experiment |
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how do you measure the concentration of a protein in a crude extract
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biuret test for peptide bond
colorimetric test spectrophotometer used need a calibration or standard curve |
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machine used in lab to detect colour
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spectro photo meter
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what is the Biuret test
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a colorimetic test depending on the presence of peptide bonds
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after absorption reading, what do you use to find protein concentration?
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Calibration curve/standard curve
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units for protein concentration?
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Mg per mL
no mole |
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three models tested in Meselson Stahl experiment?
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Conservative
semi-conservative Dispersal |
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features specific to Eukaryotes
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True nucleus cf no nucleus
membrane enclosed organelles cf no organelles linear DNA cf circular DNA multicellular cf unicellular Histone protein cf none |
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cell theory
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ALL organisims are composed of one or more cells
cells are the SMALLEST LIVING UNITS of all organisms cells arise only by DIVISION of a PREVIOUSLY existing cell |
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5 common features of life
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Cells
DNA RNA Protein Membranes |
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where is protein produced?
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Ribosome
made from protein and tRNA reads mRNA and creates poly peptide chains |
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name an adapter molecule
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tRNA
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3 feature of nucleic acid
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STORE information - genome
transmit information -TRANSCRIPTION REPLICATION by base pairing store, transmit and replicate |
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shape of Hb curve
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Sigmoidal
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components of Haem
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4N
Histadine Fe at center |
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Role of Mb
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Myoglobin stores O2
releases only when saturation levels are low |
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role of Hb
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O2 transport
reversibly binds O2 from the lungs to tissues |
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number of amino acids in Hb and Mb
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20
and a prosthetic heme group haem cofactor = tightly bound |
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what do enzymes do
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change the Kinetics (motion) of a reaction
But not the thermodynamics |
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what is collagen and how is it structured?
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Fibrous glycoprotein
triple alpha helix in connective tissues like ligaments and tendons |
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what is a hormone?
name two groups |
Chemical messanger
endocrine = blood (thyroid, ovaries, testies) exocrine = secreted first into duct |
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what does nuclease do
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repairs damaged DNA
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what does telomerase do?
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adds DNA sequence repeats to the 3' end of DNA strands in the telomere regions
non coding TTAGGG |
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what do buffers do and how do they work
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MINIMISE changes in concentrations of H3O+ and OH-
consist of acid base pairing which REVERSIBLY bind with H+ |
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explain Order
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living things self assemble into organised structures
seperate from the environment = compartmentalise phospholipids - spontaneous in H2O |
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what is glycerol
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three carbon alcohol with OH- groups attached to each carbon
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structure of a fatty acid?
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carboxcylic acid with carbon chain
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when are monsaccharides synthesised
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during photosynthesis.
e.g. glucose |
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why are carbs harder to store
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they dont form globules
OH groups are hydrophilic |
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what is oxidised to form CO2
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C6H12O6
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what happens to o2 during respiration
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it is reduced to form H2O in the ETC
In mcd matrix |
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what does NADPH stand for
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Nicotinamide
Adenine Dinucleotide Phosphate Hydride |
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what does ATP stand for
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Adenosine
Tri Phosphate |
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what is attached to the 6' carbon on glucose?
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H2OH
i.e H2COH |
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on a beta glucose where does the 1' OH- orientate
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It is on the same side as the 6' carbon
straigt up |
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what is maltose and what is it made from
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maltose is a disaccharide
made from 2 glucose monomers alpha 1-4 linkage |
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why is cellulose not easily broken down?
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enzymes that hydrolyse alpha linkages cant hydrolyse beta
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what is a gene
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a unit of inheritance
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where is DNA hydrophobic
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On the inside where bases stack
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what is the monomer of nucleic acid
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nucleotide
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which order are adjacent molecules of nucleotides joined
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from 3' carbon of the new moiety
joined to the phosphate group 3' to 5' |
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c and t are what? Spell them
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Pyrimidines
Cytosine Thymine |
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A and G are what? spell them
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Purines
Adenine Guanine |
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distance between bases
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0.34nm
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one cycle of the double helix is how long?
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3.4nm
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components of chromosomal packing
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DNA
histone proteins (8) Nucleosomes chromosomes |
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c and t are what? Spell them
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Pyrimidines
Cytosine Thymine |
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A and G are what? spell them
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Purines
Adenine Guanine |
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distance between bases
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0.34nm
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one cycle of the double helix is how long?
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3.4nm
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components of chromosomal packing
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DNA
histone proteins nucleosome chromotin fibres chromosome |
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2 properties of ribose cf deoxyribose
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ribose is more prone to hydrolysis and is less stable
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mRNA will be identicle to
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coding stand, except U substituted for T
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extra stage of Eukaryote transscription
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pre mRNA and RNA processing
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what is attached to either end of tRNA
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anti codon and amino acid
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what is rRNA and what are its 2 roles
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Ribosomal RNA
interacts with tRNAs during translation by providing catalytic role (ribozyme) Structural role in Ribosome |
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what is snRNA and what does it do?
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Small nuclear ribonucleic acid (snRNA) is a class of small RNA molecules that are found within the nucleus of eukaryotic cells
pre mRNA splicing |
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three types of amino acids
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polar
non polar charged (neg = acids) (pos = base) |
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what affects structure of proteins
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pH
salt concenration Temp |
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what is needed to renature a protein
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chaperonins
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