Biochemistry Dental Exam 2

Front 1

what two major quesitons arise when one views the function of a living cell biochemically

Back 1

-how do cells extract energy from thier surroundings ?

- how do cells synthesis their macromolecules ?

Front 2

a highly integrated network of chemical reactions required to extract energy and syntesize macromolecules

Back 2

metabolism

Front 3

the reactions that yield energy and simple organic compounds that can be used as building blocks

Back 3

catabolism (degredation)

Front 4

reactions that use energy and building blocks to synthesize macromolecules

Back 4

anabolism (synthesis )

Front 5

catabolism and anabolism are highly ______ and ______ for each cell to function properly

Back 5

regulated and integrated

Front 6

autotrophs

Back 6

use co2 and h2o s building blocks and sun light as their energy source

Front 7

hetertrophs

Back 7

use organic compounds as the source of both building blocks and energy

Front 8

carbohydrates are generally regarded as the most readily _________________for animals

Back 8

available source of energy

Front 9

advantages to using multi step pathways

Back 9

- they generate many simple compounds which can be used as buliding blocks
-energetically more feasible for a cell to handle the generation or consumption of small amounts of energy rather than large amounts involved in one step

Front 10

most catabolic reactions involve

Back 10

oxidative degradation

Front 11

most anabolic reactions involve

Back 11

reductive synthesis

Front 12

ATP is the universal

Back 12

energy carrier

Front 13

NADH, FADH2, NADPH are

Back 13

the mAjor electron carriers

Front 14

co enzyme a is the

Back 14

universal acyl group carrier

Front 15

large amounts of ___ _____ results form the oxidation of food stufs

Back 15

free energy

Front 16

free energy is

Back 16

the energy capable of doing work at constant temperatures and pressure

its what can be utilized by the organism for all of its activities including the synthesis process of anabolism

Front 17

free energy is usually expressed by heat term called

Back 17

calorie

Front 18

the amount of heat ( energy) required to raise the temperature of 1 g of h20 1 degree C starting at 14.5 degrees C

Back 18

calorie

1 cal = 4.18 juoles

Front 19

free energy released by oxidation of food stuff generally cant be utilized by organisms directly they must be converted into another usable form , this is in a chemical bond energy called

Back 19

ATP (adenosine triphosphate )

Front 20

ATP is formed by

Back 20

the reaction of ADP with inorganic phosphate (Pi) with the input of energy released by oxidative degredation

Front 21

at ph 7 ATP each of the phosphate groups is

Back 21

nearly completly ionized, so 4 neg charges

Front 22

the magnesium complex of ATP is

Back 22

the biologically active form

Front 23

the hydrolysis of ATP provides

Back 23

free energy to the cell

ATP + H20 --> ADP + Pi + energy

Front 24

understandard condisiotn of temp pressure and concentration of reactants the hydrolysis of ATP yields _________. but since conditions of living cells are not equivalent to standard conditions the hydrolysi only yields _______.

Back 24

-7300 colories per mole of ATP

-1200 calories per mole of ATP

Front 25

ATP is a _____ ____ phosphate compound beucase it contains two phosphoanhydride bonds in its triphosphate unit

Back 25

high energy

Front 26

the phosphate bond energy in ATP refers to the

Back 26

difference in the energy constent of the reactants (ATP) and products (ADP + Pi) of the hydrolysis

delta G is neg

Front 27

the ATP and ADP sytem play a central role in nearly all

Back 27

enzymatic phosphate transfer reactions in the cell

Front 28

ATP is a _____ and ADP is a _______ in phosphate tranfer reactions

Back 28

phosphate donor , phosphate acceptor

Front 29

ATP serves as the principle ____ ___ of free energy. it does not serve as a storage form of free energy.

Back 29

immediate donor

Front 30

the turnover rate of ATP

it must be continually regenerated by ADP for

Back 30

is high , molecule consumed within a minute of it being formed

motion, active transport, biosynthesis, and other energy requiring functions

Front 31

ATP is formed by both the reaction of _____ and _____ , and through __________

Back 31

ADP and creatin phosphate , and oxidative phosphorylation

Front 32

heterotrophs derive thier free energy from _______ of fuel molecules such as _____ and _____

Back 32

oxidation , glucose, fatty acids

Front 33

under aerobic conditions in oxidation , _____ is the ultimate electron acceptor in the electron tranport chain

Back 33

O2

Front 34

two electron carriers in the elctron transport chain in carbohydrate metabolism

Back 34

nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) ( a pyradine dinucleotide) , and flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) (a flavin compound )

Front 35

the reactive part of NAD+ is its _____, which in oxidation of a substrate accept _____ and ______. the reduction carrier is called _____

Back 35

nicotinamide ring , 1 hydrogen and 2 electrons, NADH

Front 36

the reactive site of FAD is its ________, which in oxidation accepts ______ and _____ and the reduced carrier is called _____

Back 36

isoalloxazine ring , 2 hydrogens and 2 electrons, FADH2

Front 37

in the process of electron transport , free energy is released and _______ are formed

Back 37

ATP

Front 38

NADPH carries elctrons in the same way as NADH, but NADPH is used almost exlusively as _________ for _______, where NADH is used primarily for _________ via the _________

Back 38

an electron donor, reductive biosynthesis , generation of ATP, electron transport chain

Front 39

coenzyme A is sometimes called

Back 39

CoASH, or CoA

Front 40

the reactive site of CoA is _____, when acyl groups are linked to COA they are in the __________, acyl- CoA has a _____ potential for transfering its cyl group to another compound

Back 40

the terminal sulfhydryl group (-SH), activated form , high

Front 41

___involves a series of reactions where glucose is degraded to yield 2 molecules of a three carbon acid called ____

Back 41

glycolysis, pyruvic acid

Front 42

glycolysis

Back 42

the major pathway of glucose metabolism and is one of the major routes for the production of energy

Front 43

glycolysis pathway occurs in all cells but is specially active in _______ and ____

Back 43

skeletal muscles and brain

Front 44

glycolysis is an ________ process

Back 44

anaerobic

Front 45

in muscle tissue glycolysis is coupled to _____ so the pyruvic acid formed by glycolysis can be utilied aerobically

Back 45

the citric acid cycle ,

Front 46

if the muscle is anaerobic then the pruvic acid is converted to _______ in an enzyme mediated reaction

Back 46

lactic acid

Front 47

_____ in anerobic environments can exist using only glycolysis as a source of energy

Back 47

some microorganisms

Front 48

the standard free energy of glycolysis is

Back 48

-47000 cal per mole of glucose

Front 49

glycolysis yields

Back 49

2 moles of ATP for each mole of glucose that is metabolized

Front 50

the real free energy yield of glycolysis is ___ because the formtion of the two moles of ATP takes away from the overall free energy

Back 50

-32400 cal per mole of glucose

Front 51

cells use glycolysis for 2 purposes

Back 51

1) to generate ATP from ADP and Pi
2) to break glucose down to smaller fragments that can be metabolized further

Front 52

the pancreatic hormone _______ is necessary for the uptake of _____ by many tissues with the exception of _____

Back 52

insulin , glucose , brain tissue

Front 53

diabetic individuals

Back 53

can still take up glucose in the intestinal cells and gets into the circulating blood , but it cant be taken up by most cells of the body

Front 54

when glucose inters a cell it is phosphorylated to yield

Back 54

glucose 6 phosphate

Front 55

the major enzyme involved in the reaction of glucose to glucose 6 phosphate is

Back 55

hexokinase with ATP used as the phosphate donor

Front 56

in the livers parachyme cells another enzyme ________, is used to convert glucose to glucose 6 phosphate

Back 56

glucokinase

Front 57

glucokinase has a _______ Km and assures that the blood glucose will be kept at the proper level

Back 57

high

Front 58

hexokinase found in other cells has a ____ Km which assures that practically all the hexose in the cell is in the phosphorylated state

Back 58

low

Front 59

__________ is an important intermediate in metabolism since it can be used by cells either as ____ material for glycolysis or for the synthesis of ______ , and important storage carbohydrate

Back 59

glucose 6 phosphate, starting, glycogen

Front 60

if cells need energy glucose 6 phosphate will be _____ through glycolysis , if no energy needed it will be converted to _____

Back 60

metbabolized, glycogen

Front 61

if glucose 6 phosphate is used for glycolysis it must first be converted to __________ in a reaciton catalyzd by ________

Back 61

fructose 6 phosphate , phosphoglucose isomerase

Front 62

frucotse is a _______ which is found in the dissaccharide, sucrose, and it is a _______ reaction

Back 62

ketohexose , reversible

Front 63

fructose 6 phosphate is converted to ______ in the glycolysis cycle by another phosphorylation reaction , catalyzed by the enzyme _____ which requires ATP which is a _____ enzyme and controls the rate of glycolysis

Back 63

fructose 1-6 bisphosphate , phosphofructokinase , regulatory

Front 64

the conversion of fructose 6 phosphate to fructose 1-6 bisphosphate is a__________ since at thi point the sugar molecule is required to be metaoblized further

Back 64

committed step

Front 65

regulation of phosphofructokinase is carried out by ______ and _____ ehich inhibit the enzyme and by _______ and ____ which stimulate it .

Back 65

ATP and citrate , ADP and AMP

Front 66

after the conversion of fructose 6 phosphate to fructose 1-6 bisphosphate , fructose 1 6 bisphosphate is cleaved to yield ________ compounds , ________ and _______ , and is catalyzed by the enzyme ______

Back 66

2 3 carbon compounds , dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate , aldolase

Front 67

dihydroxyacetone phosphate represents carbon ______ of ______ while glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate represent carbon _______

Back 67

1-3, fructose , 4-6

Front 68

dihydroxyacetone phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate are ________ of eachother and can be readily converted to the enzyme _______

Back 68

isomers, triose phosphate isomerase

Front 69

_____ is used up as soon at it is formed , but isomerization of _________ is used to to produce more glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate

Back 69

glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate , dihydroxyacetone phosphate

Front 70

the breakdown of glyceraldehyde 3 phpsphate is the first place in the pathway where the energy released is an oxidation reaction ( oxidized then phosphorylated) is _____________, which is catalyzed by the enzyme _____

Back 70

conserved by the cell , lyceraldehyde 3 phosphate dehydrogenase

Front 71

glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate dehydrogenase requires the coenzyme ______ to catalyse the reaction

Back 71

nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+)

Front 72

the substance being oxidized _______ electrons and the substance being reduced _____ electrons

Back 72

losses, gains

Front 73

glyceraldheyde 3 phosphate is converted to

Back 73

1,3 bisphosphoglyceric acid

Front 74

when 1-3 bisphosphoglyceric acid is generated is is a _____ energy compound because the phosphate on carbon ____ has a ___ energy bond.

Back 74

high , 1 , high

Front 75

the next step in glycolysis of the breakdown of 1-3 bisphosphoglyceric acid it transfers a phosphate to _______ to form ______ and ______ which is catalyzed by ____ and gives rise to ___ moles of ______

Back 75

ADP, ATP, 3- phosphoglyceric acid , 3-phosphoglycerate kinase, 2 , ATP

Front 76

3- phosphoglyceric acid is _____ in the next step by enzymes _____ and ____ to form the final organic compound _______

Back 76

rearranged, 3-phosphoglycerate mutase and enolase , phosphoenolpyruvic acid

Front 77

phosphoenolpyruvic acid contains high energy ______ which can form ____ and leave ____ which is catalyzed by _____

Back 77

phosphate group , ATP, pyruvic caid , pyruvate kinase

Front 78

pyruvate kinase is a ________ enzyme

Back 78

regulatory

- activated by ADP and AMP and inhibited by ATP

Front 79

three irreversible reactions in glcolysis pathway catalyzed by what enzymes

Back 79

hexokinase , phosphofructokinase , and pyruvate kinase

Front 80

the most important control element in glycolysis

Back 80

phosphofructokinase

Front 81

the relative levels of _____ , ____ and ______ regulate the rate of glycolysis by thier modulator phosphofructokinase, inhibitor is ____

Back 81

ADP, ATP, AMP ......APT

Front 82

_______is an allosteric inhibitor of phosphofructokinase

Back 82

citrate

Front 83

there are two mechanisms to regenerate NAD+

Back 83

glycerol phosphate shuttle (aerobic)and the reduction of pyruvate to lactate (anaerobic)

Front 84

phosphofructokinase can also be stimulated by the compound ______ which is catalyzed by ____ which is under the control of_____

Back 84

fructose-2,6- bisphosphate , phosphofructokinase 2, glucagon hormone

Front 85

____ is inhibited by glucose 6-phosphate

Back 85

hexokinase

Front 86

what happens when phosphofructokinase is inhibited

Back 86

fructose-6-phosphate levels rise causeing the equilibrium with glucose 6 phosphate so the concentration of it will rise causing it to inhibit hexokinase

Front 87

both muscle and liver pyruvate kinase bind the substrate _______ and binding of this enzyme is ____

Back 87

phosphoenolpyruvate allosterically , sigmoidal

Front 88

fructose-1,6-bisphosphate stimulate

Back 88

pyruvate kinase

Front 89

liver pyruvate kinase is phosphorylated in response to _____which is less active than ______

Back 89

low blood sugar , nonphosphorylated pyruvate kinase

Front 90

normally in resting muscles NADH is reoxidized by means of ____ which reacts with _______ to reduce it to ____ thus regenerating NAD+ which is then used in the oxidation of _______in glycolysis

Back 90

glycerol phosphate shuttle , dihydroxyacetone phosphate , glycerol-3-phosphate ,glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate

Front 91

electrons passed to glycerol 3 phosphate must be transfered to something else to regenerate dihydroxyacetone phosphate so glycerol 3 phosphate enters the ________, where is is oxidized by _____ back to dihydroxyacetone phosphate which leaves and goes back to the cytosol

Back 91

mitochondria, a membrane bound flavoprotein (E-FAD)

Front 92

the reduced flavoprotein is oxidized by components of the

Back 92

mitochondria respiratory chain

Front 93

the alternative pathway for pyruvate under extreme excersise

Back 93

reduction of pyruvate by NADH to produce lactate

Front 94

conversion of pyruvate to lactate is catalyzed by ____which is found in ____

Back 94

lactic dehydrogenase , muscles

Front 95

the accumulation of _____ in muscles results from the swamping of the mitochondria respiratory system and not because the muscle is _____. this happens becasue the rate of glycolyss exceeds the rate of _______ by the glycerol phosphate shuttle

Back 95

lactic acid , anerobic , reoxidation of NADH

Front 96

the liver resynthesizes _____ form lactic acid and puts it back into circulation this process is called

Back 96

glucose , gluconeogenisis

Front 97

____ is a regualtor of oxygen ransort in erythrocytes , is decreases the oxygen affinity hemoglobin by stabilizing the deoxygenated form of hemoglobin

Back 97

2,3-bisphosphoglycerate (2,3-BPG)

Front 98

the synthesis and degredation of 2,3-BPG are detours of the ________

Back 98

glycolytic pathway

Front 99

the enzyme ________ converts 1,3-bisphosphoglycerate to 2,3-BPG

Back 99

diphosphoglycerate mutase

Front 100

when the levels of 2,3-BPG get too high it can be hydrolyzed by the enzyme _______ to ______ and reenter the glycolytic pathway

Back 100

2,3-bisphosphoglycerate phosphatase , 3-phosphoglycerate

Front 101

2,3-BPG is an oxygen regulator which means the reaction occurs predominatly in _____

Back 101

red blood cells

Front 102

overall the process of glycolysis yields ____ ATP

Back 102

2

Front 103

te glycolytic enzymes in most cells exist in the______ and is where the reactions take place

Back 103

soluble cytoplasm

Front 104

citric acid cycle also known as

Back 104

krebs cycle
tricarboxylic acid cycle

Front 105

primary function of citric acid cycle

Back 105

to oxidize acetate in the form of acetyl coenzyme a to yield 2 molecules of CO2 and 4 pairs of electrons

Front 106

____ may be considered the end product of glycolysis (from pyruvate) and of fatty acid oxidartion

Back 106

acetyl co a

Front 107

the cirtic acid cycle is a major catabolic pathway in the _______ and _____ is a major focal point in the oxidation metabolism of practically all foods

Back 107

aerobic metabolism
acetly co a

Front 108

the 8 electons produced in the citric acid cycle are in the form of

Back 108

3 NADH
and 1 FADH2

Front 109

the 3 NADH and 1 FADH2 will be oxidized by means of the _________ by molecular oxygen which will form ____ ATP through the process called ____ ( represents two third of the ATP generated in the body )_

Back 109

mitochondria electron transport system , 9, oxidative phosphorylation

Front 110

to start the citrci acid cycle pyruvate is oxidatively decarboxylated in the mitochondria by a multienzyme complex ______

Back 110

pyruvate dehydrogenase

Front 111

3 different enzymes make up pyruvate dehydrogenase and have each has a coenzyme

Back 111

1-pyruvate decarboxylase (dehydrogenase) with thiamin pyrophosphate(TPP)
2-dihydrolipoyl transacetylase with lipoic acid
3- dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase with flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD)

Front 112

function of pyruvate decarboxylase and TPP

Back 112

decarboxylation

Front 113

function of dihydrolipoyl transacetylase and lipoic acid

Back 113

transfer CoASH to lipoic acid with a concomitant reduction of lipoic acid

Front 114

function of dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase and FAD

Back 114

regeneration of the oxidized form of lipoic acid

Front 115

steps in the citric acid cycle (vague ) look at more detailed

Back 115

acetly co A----> citrate ------> cis a conitate----> isocitrate -----> alpha keto glutarate ----> succinyl co A----> succinate ----> fumarate ---> malate----> oxaloacetate

ACCIGSSFMO- All Cars carry

Front 116

enzymes in order of use in the citric acid cycle

Back 116

citrate synthase
aconitase
aconitase
isocitrate dehydrogenase
alpa ketogluterate dehydrogenase
succinyl CoA synthetase
succinate dehydrogenase
fumarase
malate dehydrogenase

Front 117

the citric acid cycle takes place in

Back 117

the mitochondrial matrix of thr cell

Front 118

the reaction of acetyle co a to citrate is a ________reaction which is catalysed by ________ which is a _____ enzyme

Back 118

irreversible , citrate synthase , pacemaker enzyme (regulatory)

Front 119

citrate synthate is controlled by the amount of ____ and ____

Back 119

acetly co a and oxaloacetate

Front 120

the conversion of citrate to alph keto gluterate is done in two steps first citrate is converted to ______ and an intermediate is formed called _____ , where the tertiary alch is converted to a secondary alch , the second step is the _____ of the first to produce alphaketogluterate and ______

Back 120

isocitrate , cis aconitate , irreversible oxidation , CO2

Front 121

when the conversion from citrate to alpha keto gluterate happens is couples the reaction of ____ and ____ to relase a large amount of free energy

Back 121

oxidation and decarboxylation

Front 122

overall the conversion of citrate to alpha keto gluterate is catalyzed by _____, and used ___ as an electron acceptor

Back 122

isocitrate dehydrogenase , NAD+

Front 123

the step of citrate to alpha keto glutarate is ____ nihibited by ___ and ____

Back 123

allosterically , ATP and NADH (if levels are high cycle slows)

Front 124

the step of oxidation os alpha keto gluterate tp produce_____ is a ____ reaction catalyzed by ___

Back 124

succinyl conezyme a , irreverisble , alpha keto gluterate dehydrogenase complex ,

Front 125

the alpha keto gluterate dehydrogenase complex is compsed of ______ , ___ and ____ with the coenzymes ___, ___ and ____

Back 125

decaboxylase, dihydrolipoyl transsuccinylase , and dihydrolipoyl dehydrogenase , TPP, lipoic acid, FAD

Front 126

the mechanis of oxidation alpha keto gluterate to succinyl coenzyme a is similar to that of _______

Back 126

the oxidation of pyruvate

Front 127

the reaction of alph keto gluterate to succinyl co A uses ______ to produce _____ basically completing the oxidaiton of acetly co a

Back 127

NAD+ , CO2

Front 128

the reaction of succinyl co a to ______- by _______ is the start of the regeneration of _____ so that it can carry more acetly co a groups

Back 128

succinyl phosphate , succinyl co a synthetase, oxaloacetate

Front 129

____ can transfer a phophate to ADP to yield _____ and regenerating ____ which is catylized by ___, this happens in the step where succiyl co a is converted to succinate

Back 129

GTP, ATP , GDP , nucleoside diphosphate kinase

Front 130

the oxidation of succinate to eventually oxalocaetate yields _____ at the succinate to fumarate, it yields _____ at the malate to oxaloacetate step

Back 130

FADH2, NADH

Front 131

FADH enters the ____ directyl where it is oxidized and yields _____

Back 131

mitochondrial respiratory chain , 1.5 ATP

Front 132

NADH is oxidized inthe ________ and yields _____

Back 132

electron transport chain , 2.5 ATP

Front 133

for every turn of the citric acid cycle we get what

Back 133

2 moles of CO2, 4 pairs of electrons which are shuttled to the mitochondrial electron transport chain and reducd to 2 moles of O2 to H2O, 6 electrons from 3 moles of NADH which produces 7.5 ATP, 2 electrons from one mole of FADH2 which makes 1.5 ATP, and the generation of GTP to ATP ,

overall =10 moles of ATP

Front 134

other regulators in the cycle

Back 134

- iscoitrate dehrydrogenase regulated stimulated by ADP and inhibited by NADH
- availability of NAD+
- coenzyme Q regulates the activity of succinate dehydrogenase
-high levels of succiinyl coenzyme a inhibit the activity of alpha keto gluterate dehydrogenase by competing with coenzyme a for the enzyme

Front 135

the citric acid cycle is coupled closely to the _____

Back 135

mitochondrial electron transport system or respiratoy chain

Front 136

the electron transport (respiratory chain) is a series of ________ associated with _______ which passes electrons from _____ and ____ to _______ to form water.

Back 136

electron carriers, inner membrane if the mitochondria, NADH and FADH2, O2

Front 137

this cycle occurs with a large _____ in free energy , this energy is captured in ______ which moves cross the inner mitochondria membrane and is called the _______ and in turn dirves _____

Back 137

decrease , the form of hydrogen ion , proton motive force , ATP synthesis

Front 138

in the electron transport chain to conserve energy the transfer of electrons is broken into steps where each carrier is _____ as it accepts electrons and _____ as it passes them to the next carrier

Back 138

reduced, oxidized

Front 139

_______ are thermodynampc quantities which indicate the affinity of a particular species for an electron , the more positive the reduction potential the greater the _____

Back 139

reduction potential (E) , affinity

Front 140

NADH and FADH2 have ______ E values which means they will _____, where ___ wlll do it better than ____

Back 140

negative, readily donate the electrons they carry , NADH , FADH2

Front 141

O2 has a ______ E value , the reduction potential as it moves down the chain becomes more _____ and there is a _____ in free energy

Back 141

positve , positive, decrease

Front 142

3 main types of electron carriers in the respiratory chain

Back 142

1) a group of 4 large membrane bound multisubunit protein complexes that contain prosthetic groups which enable electron transport
2)

Front 143

the four membrane bound multisubunit protein complexes and their prosthetic group

Back 143

1) NADH-Q oxidoreductase (complex 1) - FMN,Fe non heme iron clusters
2) succinate-Q reductase (complex 2) - FAD, Fe non heme iron cluster
3) Q-cytochrome c oxidoreductase (complex 3) - heme bh, heme bl, heme c1, and Fe non heme iron clusters
4) cytochrome c oxidase ( complex 4) - heme a, heme a3, Cua, Cub

Front 144

the electrons flow through three largest of these complexes____,____ and ____ in the _______ and leads to the transport of _____

Back 144

1,3 and 4 , inner mitochondrial complex , hydrogen ions

Front 145

NADH produced by the citric acid cycle in the mitochondrial matrix transfers its by reducing the oxidized form of _______. the reduced form then reduces ______ which is a membran souluble isoprotein

Back 145

complex 1 , co enzyme Q(ubiquinone)

Front 146

co enzyme Q participates by

Back 146

as a mobile membrane soluble carrier, by shuttling reducing equivalents from complex 1 to complex 3 ( oxidizes complex 1 and reduces complex 3)

Front 147

after co enzyme Q reduces complex 3 it is then oxidized by

Back 147

small water soluble hem protein , cytochrome c

Front 148

reduced cytochrome c does what

Back 148

shuttles the trsnsfered electrons to the last protein complex in the pathway , oxidized form of complex 4 .

Front 149

oxidized form of complex 4 does what once cytochrome c gets to it

Back 149

is regenerated as the transformed electrons are used to reduce molecular oxygen to water

Front 150

FADH2 needs and alternate route than NADH in the electron transport chain becuase FADH2 potential energy is not _____ enough to reduce FMN prosthetic group of _____

Back 150

low, complex 1

Front 151

FADH2 transfers its electrons to _______ which has more positive reduction potential than complex 1, does this in the mitochondiral _____

Back 151

complex 2 , matrix

Front 152

the succinate dehydrogenase that produces FADH2 is actually ____, therefor it does not freely diffuse within the mitochondrial matrix it just directly transfers it electrons to its _____ which transfers electons to ____ and diffuses across the membrane and goes on the same path as NADH

Back 152

complex 2 , , non heme iron within the complex , coenzyme Q

Front 153

_____ also results in a supply of mitochondrial FADH2

Back 153

glycerol phosphate

Front 154

_____ resides in the mitochondrial inner membrane as a membrane bound protein and binds FADH2 and then directly transfer electrons to coenxyme Q in the glycerol phosphate shuttle

Back 154

glycerol phosphate dehydrogenase

Front 155

___ and ____ do not transport protons from the mitochondrial matrix to the inner membrane space unlike complex 1

Back 155

complex 2, glycerol phosphate dehydrogenase

Front 156

____ and ___ are inhibitors that block electron trnsport between NADH Q oxidoreductase and COQ

Back 156

amytal , rotenone

Front 157

______ inhibits transport bewteen QH-cytochrome c oxidoreductase and cytochorome c1

Back 157

antimycin A,

Front 158

_____ inhibits transport between cytochrome oxidase and O2

Back 158

cyanide

Front 159

oxidative phosphorylation is

Back 159

the process by which ATP os synthesized by ADP and inorganic phosphate using the energy liberated during oxidation of the electron carriers

Front 160

the chemical coupling hypothesis

Back 160

propses that the electron transfer leads to the formation of a covalent high energy intermediate that serves as a rpecursor of ATP

Front 161

the conformational coupling hypothesis

Back 161

propses that the free energy of oxidation is trapped in an activated protein conformation which then dirves the synthesis of ATP , also using high energy intermiediates

Front 162

the chemiosmotic coupling hypothesis (Mitchell hypothesis)

Back 162

believed to best explain the mechanism of oxidative phophorylation , formulates by peter mitchell in 1961 , proposses that electron transport and oxidative phosphorylation are coupled by a proton gradient , transfer of electrons in the pathway results in the pumpin of protons form the matrix to the inner membrane by doing this the cell conserves energy form the oxidation reactions

Front 163

the energy needed for ATP synthesis is obtained by_____, which is done by _____

Back 163

when protons are allowed to flow back to the matrix side , a multi subunit complex called mitochondrial ATPase

Front 164

ATPase also catalyzes

Back 164

the synthesis of ATP form ADP and Pi

Front 165

number of protons pumped from the mitochondrial matrix at the three major complexes are

Back 165

NADH-Qoxido= 4
QH2 cyto = 2
cytochorom c = 4

Front 166

it takes appoximatly ____ protons to make 1 ATP via ATPase and ___ protons to pump ATP form the mitochondrial matrix to the cytosol

Back 166

3, 1

Front 167

cirtic acid cycle nd glycolysis are known as _______ reactions while electron transport chain is known as _____ reaction

Back 167

substarte phosphrylation, oxidative phosphorylation

Front 168

inihibitors of oxidative phosphorylation are

Back 168

2,4-dinitrophenol - inhibits by separating it from electron transport chain , which carry protons across the membrane disrupting the gradient , they are known as UNCOUPLERS and electrons are tranfered at an even higher rate to O2 , btu no ATP is synthesized

Front 169

with glycolysis , the citric acid cycle and elecrton transport chain ____ moles of ATP are produced form one mole of glucose

Back 169

30

Front 170

another pathway of carbohydrate metabolism is called ____ and is a major source of ____

Back 170

pentose phosphate pathway or phosphogluconate pathway or the hexose monophophate shunt, NADP+(NADPH)

Front 171

NADH is oxidized in the ETC to generate ATP , where NADPH serves as ____ and is necessaryas a ___ for ____

Back 171

a hydrogeen and electron donor in reductive biosynthesis , cofactor in fatty acid synthesis

Front 172

pentose phosphate pathway is more active in tissue involved in ______ like the ___ and ____ , not really found in the skeletal muscles and not at all int he brain

Back 172

fatty acid synthesis , liver and mammary gland

Front 173

pentose phosphate pathway only occurs when there is an abdequet supply of ____ and is not metabolizing glucose via glycolysis

Back 173

ATP

Front 174

pentose phosphate pathway cna also generate _____ that are inportant intermediates in the synthesis of nucleotides and nucleic acids

Back 174

pentose phosphates

Front 175

the pentose phosphate pathway has two distinct branches

Back 175

oxidative and non oxidative ( which can function indepently or together )

Front 176

the first step of the oxidized branch of the pathway for pentose phoshate pathwya is

Back 176

the oxidation of glucose 6 phophate at carbon 1 by NADP+ and the enzyme glucose 6 phosphate dehydrogenase

Front 177

the second step int he pentose pathway in the oxidative branch is _______ and the third step is the ______

Back 177

the pyranose ring opening, oxidative decarboxylation of 6-phosphogluconate to ribulose 5 phosphate by the enzyme 6-phosphogluconate dehydrogenase and NAP+

Front 178

after the second step of the pentose pthway the main prodcuts are ____ and is one of the places where ____ and ____ are linked

Back 178

pentose phosphate, CO2 nd NADPH , catabolism and anabolism

Front 179

the two NADPH are use as _____ in the synthesis of fatty acids

Back 179

reducing power

Front 180

in red blood cells NADPH is a substrat of _______ which does what

Back 180

glutathione reductase , which keeps glutathione in the reduced state

Front 181

reduced glutathine does what

Back 181

essential for maintaining the structure of the red blood cells and for keeping hemoglobin in the ferrous state

Front 182

a person with glucose 6 phosphate dehydrogenase deficiency is a risk of

Back 182

hemolytic anemia

Front 183

NADP+ is similar to NAD+ except that

Back 183

nicotinamide adenine dinuceotide phosphate , it has a phosphate group on the 2 position of the AMP moiety

Front 184

if there is a need for nucleotides or nucleic acids then ____ will be converted to ____ by an isomerase

Back 184

ribulose 5 phosphate , ribose 5 phosphate

Front 185

if there is not a need for pentoses the cell can rearange the carbons of pentos to form ____ and _____ which can be metabolized

Back 185

hexose and triose phosphates

Front 186

the reshuffling of the pentose phasphate is accomplaished by the enzymes ____ and _____

Back 186

transketolase(transfers 2 carbon units) and transaldolase ( transfers 3 carbon units)

Front 187

if needs pentose and is converted to ribose 5 phosphate the next step is for it to be ____ by ___ to form _____

Back 187

epimerized , phosphopentos epimerase , xylulose 5 phosphate

Front 188

the oxidative branch of the pentose pathway is ______ while the nonoxidative branch is _______

Back 188

irreversible, reversible

Front 189

the next step of the pentose pathway after xylulose 5 phosphate is made , the compund ______ which is an aldose acts an acceptor of _____ units that is tranfered from ____ a ketose . this reaction is catalyzed by a ______ and yields a 7 carbon sugar called _______ and a 3 carbon sugar called_____

Back 189

ribose 5 phosphate , 2 carbon unit , xylulose 5 phosphate , sedoheptulose 7 phosphate , glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate

Front 190

transketolase contains ________ as a coenzyme

Back 190

thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP)

Front 191

TPP is a derivative of the vitamine ______ and is directly involved in the transfer of the 2 carbon fargment

Back 191

thiamin

Front 192

in the next step after the making of sedoheptulose 7 phosphate and glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate , ____ catalyzes the transfer os a 3 carbon unit from sedoheptulose 7 phosphate to glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate to form the 6 carbon ketose _______ and a 4 carbon aldose _____ .

Back 192

transaldolase , fructose 6 phosphate , erythrose 4 phosphate

Front 193

in the final stage of the pentose pathway the reaction is catalyzed by ________ which tranfers a 2 carbon unit form xylulose 5 phosphate to erythrose 4 phosphate to yield another molecule of ______ and ______

Back 193

transketolase , fructose 6 phosphate , glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate

Front 194

for every 6 hexose phosphates that nter the pathway we can obtain ______ pentose phosphates which can be converted to ___ hexose phosphates and _______ trios phosphates , and the latter triose phosphates can then be converted to _____ hexose phosphate by the _____

Back 194

6, 4, 2, 1, gluconeogenic pathway

Front 195

the 5 hexose phosphates formed can ________ or ____

Back 195

put back through the pentose phosphate pathway or metabolized via glycolysis

Front 196

the pentose pathwy is controlled primarily by the relative levels of ____ and _____ . a high concetration of _____ increases the operation viz glucose 6 phosphate dehydrogenase

Back 196

NADP+ and NADPH , NADP+

Front 197

the pentose pathwya is regulated by ______

Back 197

steroid hormones

Front 198

the flow of glucose 6 phosphate through the entose pathway depends on the need for ___ ___ and ____

Back 198

NADH , ribose 5 phosphate , ATP

Front 199

much of the lactic acid formed diffuses out of the _____ cells and is carried by the blood to the ____

Back 199

muscles, liver

Front 200

the liver resynthesises ___ from lactic acid and puts it back into circulation because on of the functions of the liver is to maintain _____

Back 200

glucose , blood glucose levels

Front 201

gluconeogenisis

Back 201

the resynthesis of glucose from noncarbonahydrated precursors

Front 202

3 reactions of glycolysis that are non reversible causing glycolysis to be a non reversible reaction

Back 202

the reaction catalyzed by hexokinase,"", the phosphofructokinase reaction , and the reaction catalyzed by pyruvate kinase

Front 203

in gluconeogenesis the liver first reoxidizes _____ to _____ using ____ and the enzyme ______

Back 203

lactate , pyruvic acid, NAD+ , lactate dehydrogenase

Front 204

in gluconeogenins pyruvate then enters _____ of the liver cells where _____ begins with its conversion to _____

Back 204

mitochondria, gluconeogenisis, oxaloacetate

Front 205

the enzymes of gluconeogenisis are located in the _____ except for ______ and ______

Back 205

cytosol, pyruvate carboxylase , (in mitochondira) , and glucose 6 phosphate ( attached to the endoplasmic recticulum )

Front 206

most the reactions of gluconeogenisis are commom to that of _____

Back 206

glycolysis

Front 207

the first replacement reaction is the formation of _______ from pyruvate by the way of ________

Back 207

phosphoenolpyruvate , oxalotate

Front 208

pyruvate is first _______ to oxaloactetate at the expense of an _____ and is catalyzed by

Back 208

carboxylated , ATP , pyruvate carboxylase

Front 209

pyruvate carboxylase requires the vitamin ______as a coenzyme for its activity , and ______ acts as a positive modulator of the enzyme even though it does not participate in the reaction

Back 209

biotin , acetyl coenzyme A`

Front 210

in gluconeogenisis ______ can be converted to _____ by the enzym ______ and requires a high energy phosphate ______.

Back 210

oxaloactetate , phosphoenolpyruvate (PEP) , phophoenolpyruate carboxykinase, GTP

Front 211

PEP can then be converted to _____ and ______ by reversal of glycolysis , these two intermediates can condense to form _______

Back 211

glyceraldehyde 3 phosphate , dihydroxyacetone phosphate , fructose-1,6- bisphosphate

Front 212

the second replacement reaction for gluconeogenisis is the conversion of fructose 1,6 bisphosphate to _________ by the enzyme ______ which catalyzes the removal of the phosphate group from the C-1 position

Back 212

fructose -6- phosphate , fructose bisphosphatase

Front 213

fructose 6 phosphate can then be isomerized to ________ by the reversal of the reaction used in the glycolysis pathway

Back 213

glucose 6 phosphate

Front 214

fructose bisphosphate is allostericallly activated and inhibited by_____ and ____

Back 214

citrate , AMP

Front 215

when fructose bisphosphatase is more active _____ is less active and vis versa

Back 215

phosphofructokinase (PFK)

Front 216

futile cycle

Back 216

when inhibitor and activator enzymes are both active simultaniously , ATP would be wasted

Front 217

_____ is a compound analogous to fructose 1,6 bisphosphate that stimulates phosphofructokinase of the ____

Back 217

fructose 2,6- bisphosphate , liver

Front 218

fructose 2, 6 bisphosphate is synthesized from _____ by the enzyme ____

Back 218

fructose 6-phosphate , phosphofructokinase 2 (PFK2)

Front 219

PFK 2 contains another active site that the clevage of ______ back to _______

Back 219

F 2,6-BP , fructose 6 phosphate

Front 220

at normal blood glucose levels the enzyme is in the unphosphorylated state and ____ is active , the F2,6BP produced by the reaction stimulates ____ and glycolysis is favored. but when blood glucose is low , ______ is secreted and phosphorylation of the protein results, ____ is turned off and ____ clevage activity of the protein is turned on resulting in the dissapearance of F2,6-BP. ____ is no longer stimulated and gluconeogenisis is favored

Back 220

PFk2, PFK, glucagon , PFK 2 , F2,6-BP, PFK

Front 221

the final replacement reaction of gluconeogenisis is the conversion of _____ which is catalyzed by ____

Back 221

glucose 6 phosphate to glucose , glucose 6 phosphatase

Front 222

unlike glucose, glucose 6 phosphate (like most phosphates) _____ diffuse out of the cells

Back 222

cannot

Front 223

the action of _____ permits glucose to leave the liver cells and enter the blood stream , this enzyme is also present in the ____ which is also a gluconeoenic organ

Back 223

glucose 6 phosphatase , kidney

Front 224

the brain and skeletal muscles do not contain

Back 224

glucose 6 phosphatase

Front 225

in gluconeogenisis ____ moles of high energy phosphatases are consumed for each mole of glucose produced

Back 225

6

Front 226

____ and ___ help to make gluconeogenisi a thermodinamically favorable pathway

Back 226

pyruvate carboxylase, phosphenolpyruvate carboxykinase

Front 227

gluconeogenisis is controlled a two levels , the first at the level of ________, when mitochondrial acetyl co a builds up this enzyme is stimulated and _____ is pomoted, the second level of control involves the opposite activities of ______and ________which are under the influence energy charge .

Back 227

pyruvate carboxylase , gluconeogenisis, fructose bisphosphate and phosphofructokinase

Front 228

___ is active when ____ is high and ___ is low and ____ is active when ____ is low and ___ is high and when _____ is high , in addition high concentrations of _____ stimulate fructose bisphosphate and inihibit phosphofructokinase

Back 228

fructose bisphosphate , ATP, AMP , phosphofructokinase , ATP, AMP , fructose 2,6-bisphosphate , citrate

Front 229

the cori cycle

Back 229

name given to the relationship between lactate formation in muscle tissue and gluconeogenisis in the liver

Front 230

the liver furnishes ____ to contracting skeletal muscles which derive ____ from the glycolytic conversion of glucose to lactate . glucose is then resynthesized from lactate by the liver , these conversions help to keep the level of glucose constant in the blood

Back 230

glucose, ATP

Front 231

any ____ that can give rise to either pyruvate or oxaloacetate will serve as a ___ to glucose and is true of most ____

Back 231

metabolites, precursor , amino acids

Front 232

most of the food we eat is in the form of ___ of glucose, the two chief polymers are ___ in animals and ___ in plants

Back 232

polymers , glycogen , starch

Front 233

starch

Back 233

a carbohydrate storage material in plants and is made up of two polysaccharides of glucose

Front 234

one of the polysaccharides in glucose is ___ which is a branched polymer of glucose which resembles glycogen in structure and the other is _____ which is a linear glucose polymer of alpha 1,4 bonds

Back 234

amylopectin, amylose

Front 235

the body has degestive enzymes which hydrolyzes both __ and ___ to glucose , this is done because only ___ can cross the intestinal barrier

Back 235

starch and glycogen , monosaccharides

Front 236

saliva and pancreatic juices contain ____ which breaks down starch and glycogen especially ___ and ___ molecules into smaller pieces

Back 236

amylase, maltose and glucose

Front 237

maltose can break down to _____ by a ____ of the intestinal cells

Back 237

2 molecules of glucose , maltase

Front 238

depending on glucose levelsthe liver may put glucose into ciculation or it may store it as ____

Back 238

glycogen

Front 239

glycogen

Back 239

an important compound in the body since it represents a reserve supply of glucose either for energy or for maintaining blood sugar levels , found mainly stored in muscles and liver cells ,

Front 240

_____ is a brnached polysacchiaride composed of glucose units linked in alpha 1,4 glycosidic linkages , at each brnach point the glucose unit is attached to the other chain in an ______ linkage

Back 240

glycogen , alpha 1,6 glycosidic linkage

Front 241

glycogen is stored in cells as ______ with molecular weights ranging up to 10^7. and glycogen particles also contains the enzyme involved in the synthesis and degredation of glycogen , has many ____ ends and a single____end

Back 241

discrete particles , nonreducing, reducing

Front 242

glycogen is an excellent storage and resevr material because

Back 242

1) since it is stored as a particle it does not affect the osmolarity of a cell and can be stored in large amounts
2) the enzyme , phorphorylase , functions rapidly since glycogen has many non reducing ends

Front 243

phosphorylase

Back 243

catalyzes the degredation of glycogen at a non reducing end of the molecule

Front 244

when gluglycogen is degrade by phosphorylase it is gives rise to ____ which can be converted to ____ by the enzyme _______ , and used in glycolysis as a source of energy and ATP is not needed because already phosphorylate

Back 244

glucose 1 phosphate , glucose 6 phosphate , phosphoglucomutase

Front 245

____ alone can only degrade glycogen brnaches down to where there are4 glucose units led on the branch , and at this point can no longer remove glucose

Back 245

phosphorylase

Front 246

another enzyme ______ can take 3 glucose units from one ranch and put them on the end of another branch ______ can then attack this branch again and remove 3 glucose units one at a time , the glucose unit at left at the branch point can then be removed by another enzyme _______ in a _______ not ____ reaction giving rise to free glucose

Back 246

transferase ( alpha glucanglycosyl 4:4 transferase) , phosphorylase, alpha 1,6- glucosidase, hydorlysis, phosphorolysis

Front 247

phosphorylase is normally is found in muscle and liver in a relatively inactive form called ______ , in this form the enzyme requires ______ in order to become ____ , but if AMP level becomes high due to depletion of ATP , phorphorylase b is activated allosterically to degrade glycogen to _________ which can then be metabolized as an energy source

Back 247

phosphorylase b , AMP, active , glucose 1 phosphate

Front 248

conversion of phosphoylase b to the active form , ______. is the reuslt of a hormonal stimulation controlled by the____. where two hormones can cause this activation ___ and ____

Back 248

phosphorylase a, central nervous system, glucagon and epinephrine

Front 249

epinephrine

Back 249

secreted by adrenal medulla in response to stress (muscular exertion, fear, ext) , acts mostly on muscles to give them an immediate source of energy (from glycogen)

Front 250

glucagon

Back 250

secreted by the pancreatic islets in rsponse to low blood glucose levels ., acts mostly in the liver to raise the level of blood glucose from the glycogen stored in the liver

Front 251

epinephrine and glucagon cause a series of reactions which result in the ______ of phosphorylase b by converting it to the ______ , this reaction is catalyzed by _____ and involves ATP and the phosphorylation of the _______ of phorphorylase b to form a

Back 251

activation, phosphorylase a ( the active form) , phosphorylase kinase , two identical polypeptide chains ( the serine residue )

Front 252

the interaction of hormones to ______ results in the activation of the enzyme _______ which catalzyes the converion of ____ to _____

Back 252

receptors, adenylate cyclase , ATP , cyclic AMP

Front 253

cyclic AMP

Back 253

a secondary messanger because it is involved in the acivation of several enzymes

Front 254

in the glycogen system cAMP acts as a ______ int he activation of a protein kinase which then catalyzes the phorphorylation of ________. so the whole system in a ____ of events leading to the phosphorylase activation

Back 254

positive modulator , phosphorylase kinase , cascade

Front 255

when stress stops the hormone is nor longer secreted, cAMP no longer formed , and the cAMP already rpesent is degraded by ___ which converts it to _____

Back 255

phosphodiesterase, AMP

Front 256

phosphodiesterase is inhibited by ______ which is why _____

Back 256

caffine, which is why coffe and chocalate act as stimulants , they maintain high levels of cAMP

Front 257

once cAMP is removed ______ catalyzes the removal of the phosphate groups form the _______ to convert it to ______

Back 257

phosphatase , active phosphorylase a , phosphorylase b

Front 258

insulin and phosphorylase b

Back 258

plays an important role in the reestablishing the inactive state of phosphorylase b and then causing the blood glucos levee to be lowered by stimulating phosphodiesterase and phosphatase

Front 259

ig glucagon was still being made during times of stress the system would result in _______, therefor ___ and _____ inhibit glycogen synthesis

Back 259

a futile cycle , glucagon and epinephrine

Front 260

glycogen is synthesized by ___ which does what

Back 260

glycogen synthase , ....catalyzes the sequentail tranfer of glucose units from the sugar nucleotide , UDP-glucose, to a plypeptide chain (primer,acceptor) to increase the length of the chain

Front 261

in glycogen synthesis , the glucose donor _______ is an activated form of glucose .

Back 261

UDP-glucose , serves as a donor in the biosynthesis of many dissacharides and polysaccharides

Front 262

UDP-glucose is synthesized form what _____ catalyzed by ______

Back 262

glucose 1 phosphate and uridine triphosphate (UTP) , UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase

Front 263

glycogen synthase will produce

Back 263

a long linear molucule of glucose units connected in the alpha 1,4 linkages

Front 264

____ is required to make branches in glycogen . this enzyme takes seven sugars off the main chain or a long branch and tranfers them ___ to another position in the chain to make a branch with an _____ linkage to form thehighly branched glycogen

Back 264

branching enzyme ( alpha -glucan glycosyl 1-4,6-tranferase) , en bloc, alpha 1,6 linkage

Front 265

to inactivate glycogen synthase , it is phosprylated by ______ and converted to _____ the inactive form , and can be activated again by ____ , which is an escape mechanism that is utilized when ____

Back 265

kinase , glycogen synthase b , positive modulator (glucose 6 phosphate ) , epinephrine is secreted as a result of a false alarm

Front 266

the escape mechanism allows _____ that accumulates to be salvaged and used in the resynthesis of glycogen

Back 266

glucose 1 phosphate

Front 267

when stress conditions are over _____ is reconverted to synthase a the ____ form by a removal of ____ catalyzed by ____

Back 267

synthase b , active , phosphate group , phophatase

Front 268

the hormone insulin favors the ___ form of glycogen synthase , causing blood glucose levels to lower by stimulating the _____ that breaks down cAMP and the _____ that dephosphorylates glycogen synthase b

Back 268

active , phosphodiesterase, phosphatase

Front 269

type 1 Von Gierke's disease
1-defective enzyme
2-organ affected
3-glycogen in the affected organ
4- clincal feature

Back 269

1-defective enzyme = glucose 6 phosphatase
2-organ affected= liver and kidney
3-glycogen in the affected organ = increased amount, normal structure
4- clinical features = massive enlargment of the liver, failure to thrive, severe hypoglycemia, ketosis, hyperuricemia, hyperlipidemia

Front 270

type 2 Pompe's disease
1-defective enzyme
2-organ affected
3-glycogen in the affected organ
4- clincal feature

Back 270

1- defective enzyme= alpha 1,4-glucosidase
2- organs affected = All
3- glycogen inthe organ affected= massive increase in amount, normal structure
4- clincal feature = cardiorespiratory failure, causes death, usually before age 2

Front 271

Type 3 Cori's disease
1-defective enzyme
2-organ affected
3-glycogen in the affected organ
4- clincal feature

Back 271

1-defective enzyme = amylo 1,6- glucosidase (debranching enzyme )
2- oran affected = muscle and liver
3- glycogen in the affected organ = increased amount , short outer branches
4- clincal features = like type 1 but milder course

Front 272

type 4 Andersons's disease
1-defective enzyme
2-organ affected
3-glycogen in the affected organ
4- clincal feature

Back 272

1-defective enyme= branching enzyme
2-organ affected = liver and spleen
3-glycogen in the affected organ = normal amount , very longer outer branches
4- clincal feature = progressive cirrhosis of the liver, liver failure causes death , ususlly before age 2

Front 273

type 5 Mc Ardles's disease
1-defective enzyme
2-organ affected
3-glycogen in the affected organ
4- clincal feature

Back 273

1-defective enzyme = phosphorylase
2-organ affected = muscle
3-glycogen in the affected organ =moderatly increased amount , normal structure
4- clincal feature = limited ability to perform strenuous excercise because of painful muscle cramps, othewise patient is normal and well developed

Front 274

type 6 Her's disease
1-defective enzyme
2-organ affected
3-glycogen in the affected organ
4- clincal feature

Back 274

1-defective enzyme = phosphorylase
2-organ affected = liver
3-glycogen in the affected organ= increased amount
4- clincal feature = like type 1 but milder course

Front 275

type 7
1-defective enzyme
2-organ affected
3-glycogen in the affected organ
4- clincal feature

Back 275

1-defective enzyme = phosphofructokinase
2-organ affected = muslce
3-glycogen in the affected organ = increased amount , normal structure
4- clincal feature = like type 5

Front 276

type 8
1-defective enzyme
2-organ affected
3-glycogen in the affected organ
4- clincal feature

Back 276

1-defective enzyme = phosphorylase kinase
2-organ affected = liver
3-glycogen in the affected organ = increased amount, normal structure
4- clincal feature = mild liver enlargment , mild hypoglycemia

Front 277

epinephrine and glucagon are known as ______ hormones

Back 277

hyperglycemic - increase blood glucose levels by glycogen degredation

Front 278

insulin is known as a _____ hormone

Back 278

hypoglycemic - decrease blood glucose levels

Front 279

insulin is secreted by _______ , and increase the entry of glucose into some cells mainly ___ and ____ , and it stimulates _____ and inhibts _____ by stimulating __________ , which is the enzyme used to lower leves of cAMP, it may also inhibit _____

Back 279

beta cells of the pancrease , muslce and adipose, glycogenisis , glycogen degredation , cAMP phosphodiesterase , adenylate cyclase

Front 280

insulin also induces higher levels of liver _____ , ____, and ____ while repressing _______

Back 280

liver glucokinase, phosphofructikinase, and pyruvate kinase, the enzymes of the gluconeogenic pathway

Front 281

the net affect of insulin

Back 281

stimulate the removal of glucose from the blood and to decrease the rate of glucose synthesis

Front 282

the onyl foods that can be directly abosorbed are ____- all others must be degraded by chemical and enzymatic processes before being absorbed.

Back 282

water, inorganic salts, vitamins, monosaccharides and certain lipids

Front 283

major foods that must ne degraded then absorbed are

Back 283

carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids

Front 284

digestion is

Back 284

the hydrolysis of complex foodstuffs to smaller components in the lumen of the gastrointestinal tract

Front 285

absorption

Back 285

refers to processes by qhich the products of digestion are transported from the lumen into the intestinal cells and eventually into the circulatory system

Front 286

the alimentary canal is designed to accomplish

Back 286

1- make foodstuffs available for enzymatic attck
2- give the proper conditions for enzyme activity
3- allow the digested products to be absorbed and trnasported to other cells for utilization
4- to eliminate waste products

Front 287

mouth: where _____is the first digestive juices are incountered . which has a ____ ph and contain the digestive enzyme _____. which starts the digestion of ____ and _____ byt does not cause extenisve breakdown. what are the major functions of saliva:

Back 287

saliva, neutral, amylase , glycogen and starch

function:
mosition food, dilute potentially harmful materials such as acids, and to cleanse the teeth and gums

Front 288

stomach: the gatsric juices of the stomach contain _______,____, ______, ___ and ______

Back 288

HCL, the proteolatic enzyme pepsin, a lipase, mucus, and intrinsic factor ( a glycoprotein that binds vitamin b 12 which promotes absorption )

Front 289

hcl is secreted at a concetration of ph

Back 289

.89

Front 290

the low ph environment of the stomach does what

Back 290

- kills bacteria
-starts acid hydrolysis of some proteins , carbs, and lipids
- and activates pepsingoen to pepsin

Front 291

pesinogne is

Back 291

the zymogen of pepsin and is activated at ph 2

Front 292

the main digestive finction of the stomach

Back 292

initiation of protein digestion by the action of pepsin

Front 293

gastric lipase does what

Back 293

initiates the hydrolysi of triacylglycerols , but the rate of hydrolysis is slow due to the lipid phase nature of triacylglycerols

Front 294

the small intestine has 3 digestive juices ____ ,____ and _____ that are at a ____ ph and when mixed with the acidic contents of the stomach provide a neutral ph envoronent

Back 294

pancreatic juice, bile, and intestinal juice , basic ( ph7.6-8)

Front 295

majority of diegtions occurs where

Back 295

the small intestin

Front 296

bile also contains

Back 296

salts an cholesterol which aid in the digestion and emulsification of lipids

Front 297

some final digestive enzymes are not in the juices but are part of the _________ of the______ which aid in absorption as well as digestion

Back 297

membrane of the intestinal mucosa cells

Front 298

other organs that help aid in the digestive system

Back 298

liver, gall bladder , pancrease large intestine

Front 299

liver

Back 299

makes bile

Front 300

gallbladder

Back 300

stores an concetrates bile which is required for lipid absoption

Front 301

the pancrease

Back 301

the major organ of synthesis of enzymes required for hydrolysis of carbs, proteins , lipids, and nucleic acids , also secretes NaHCO3 into the duodenum to neutralize HCL

Front 302

pancreaic enzymes involved in digestion are most active at ______ph

Back 302

neutral

Front 303

large intestin

Back 303

not involved in digestive process but does absorbe electrolytes

Front 304

secretagogues

Back 304

secretions regulated by these , these act through receptors on tragted cells . physiological secretagogues are neurotransmitters, biogenic amines, or hormones

Front 305

the major neurtotransmitter secretaogue is _____ which does what

Back 305

acetylcholine , stimulate salivary, gastric, and pancreatic secretions .

Front 306

acetlycholine acts through

Back 306

muscarinic type receptors and its action can be blocked by atropine

Front 307

although salivary secretion does not require acetylcholine is does stimulate ____

Back 307

secretion

Front 308

aldosteron does not stimulate salivary secretion but it does

Back 308

affect the elcetolyte composition of saliva

Front 309

the principl biology amine secretagogues are

Back 309

histamine and 5-hydroxytryptamine (serotonin)

Front 310

histamine is secreted by _______ and stimualtes ______. and the analoges are used pharmologically in the treatment of_______ to block the secretion of ______ by mucosal cells in the small intestine

Back 310

specialized cells in the stomach wall , gastric secretion of HCl , peptic ulcers, NaCl

Front 311

gastrin

Back 311

stimulates the secretion of HCL and pepsinogen in the stomach

Front 312

cholecystokinin

Back 312

is secreted by endocrine cells int he small intestin in response to the lipids , hydrolyzed protein products , and acid from the stomach . it stimulates contraction of the gall bladder to release biile , and stimulates secretion of digective enzymes from the pancrease and inhibits gastric motility

Front 313

secretin

Back 313

secreted by other endocrine cells in the small intestine in respoonse to the the acidic fluids form the stomach and its principle activity is to stimulate the secretion of pancreatic juices enrich in NaHCO3, it also acts as a junction with cholecystokinin to stimulate relase of pancreatic enzymes .

Front 314

vasoactive intestinal peptide

Back 314

secreted form intestinal neve cells to stimulate secretion of NaCl form cells inthe small intestine and it also induces relaxation of smooth muslce

Front 315

gastric inhibitory peptide

Back 315

secreted by cells in the small intestine . its main function is to stimulate relase of insulin from the pancrease , and it inhibits secretion of HCL and gastric motility

Front 316

the absorption of digestive nutrients consits primarily of

Back 316

thier transfer form the lumen of the small intestin through the intestial epithelium and into the clood and lymph vessels

Front 317

i each villus isa dense network of

Back 317

blood and lymh vessels to which nutrients when digestion os complete

Front 318

the epithelium of the smallintesrines villi are compsed of two types of cells

Back 318

goblet cells - secrtet mucus
absoptive cells - carry out thr main functions of digestion and absorption

Front 319

surface of the absorption cells is called___ which conatin___ which is covered by

Back 319

the brush boarder , microvilli , glycocalyx

Front 320

glycoproteins

Back 320

membrane bound enzymes capable of digesting a wide range of fuel molecules, products which are then carried into the cytoplasm by the transport system . the glycocalyx is composed of the side chain onthe enzymes

Front 321

the main carb in the diet

Back 321

starch and glycogen ; sucrose , lactose, and maltose , fructose, glucose, and galactose

Front 322

digestion of starch and glycogen begins in the ______ with ____ which hydrolyzes _____, aditional digestion occurs in the _______ where _____ continues to hydrolyze alpha 1,4 bonds . both salivary and pancreatic amylase yield ______ , ___ and _____ and limit _____

Back 322

mouth with the salivary amylase , the alph 1,4 bonds , lumen of the small intestine, pancreatic amylase , glucose , maltose , isomaltose , dextrins

Front 323

_______ hydrolyzes the alpha 1,6 bonds in isomaltose and limit dextrins , this enzyme is part of the _____ and is ____

Back 323

amylo 1,6-glucosidase , brush boarder , membrane bound

Front 324

____ , ___ , and ___ are examples of brush boarder enzymes that digest trisaccharides, and disacchrides so the final stages of polyshaccaride digestion occur on the membrane of absobptive cells

Back 324

lactase, sucrase, maltase

Front 325

monosaccharides are absorbed where

Back 325

the bruch boarder in the jejunum , but not by simple diffusin

Front 326

fructose is absorbed by

Back 326

facilitated transport via membrane carrier

Front 327

glucose and galactose are absorbed

Back 327

via an active transport mechanism involving a membrane carrier, transport Na+ and hydrolysis of ATP

Front 328

lactose intolerance

Back 328

caused by a deficiency in lactase , one of the brush boarder enzymes that hydorlyzes lactose to galactose and glucose , because of the deficiny lactose can not hydrolyze and it acumulates in the intestin , where is is fermented by intestinal microorganisms to produce products which cause distention , cramping, and diarrhea

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protein digestion

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the enzymatic degrdation of proteins to free amino acids and small oligopeptides

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problems with protein digestive enzymes

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potential to digest both cellular protein and food protein

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way in which it prevents autodigestion is to synthesize

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the enzymes in the inactove form , inactive precursors called zymogens

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___ is the first proteolitic enzyme encountered by ingested food , where it is both synthesized and used inthe stomach . it is synthesized as the ______ adn then converted to the active form by one of the 2 types of clevage at a specific site

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pepsin, , zymogen pepsinogen

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cleavge of zymogen pepsinogen can occurin

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an acid ph without the use of enzymes , or by by when proteins enters the stomach , gastrin is secreted from gastric musosa when stimulasted , ehich gastrin then stimulatses the secretion of HCl and pepsinogen from specific cells in the stomach , when pepsinogen is cleaved it activates pepsin which then cleaves pepsingen also

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most proteplytic enzymes in the lumen of th small intestine are synthesized in the pancrease these are

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trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase, and carboxypeptidases 9these are synthesized as zymogens and activated in the small intestine )

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trypsinogen can be activated by

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an intestinal protease called enteropeptidase or by trypsin

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all other pancreatic zymogens except trypinogen are activated by cleavage with

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trypsin

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exopeptidases

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enzymes which cleave only a terminal peptide bond , relaseing free amino acid , groupd includes cabozypeptidase A and B of the pancreatic juices

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endopeptidases

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enzymes which break peptide bonds within the protein molecule , group includes pepsin , trypsin, chymotrypsin, and elastase , all of these recognize different amino acids residues and cleave the pp bond next to it

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the final step in protein digestion are taken by _____ embedded in membranes of microvilli . they cleave the final amino acids from _______ . they are an array of active transport systmes that carry ____,_____ and ____ across the membrane . once absorbed they are reduced to by action of _____ in the cytoplasm

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aminopeptidases , short oligopeptides , free amino acids, dipeptides, tripeptides, peptidases

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most lipids are _____ with are insouble in water

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triacyglycerols

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digestion occurs in the small intestine and can divide into different stages :

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1- enzymatic degredation, called lipolysis, of triacylglcerols and formation of micelles , mostly occur in the lume of the jejunum
2- absorption of cholesterol , lipid soluble vitamins, and the degredation products of triacylglycerols
3- resynthesis of tracylglycerols ; occur in mucosal cells of the jejunum
4- transport of lipids to other tissues via the lymphatc system and portal circulation

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steps of the lipd digection

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found on the notes of clark