Bio2441 - Hard Ones

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Inundative Biological Control - Greenhouse thrips damage citrus, avocados and ornamental plants in NZ. Native parasitoids are widely used in inundative biological control in NZ glasshouses. This larval parasitoid has a faster generation time than Greenhouse thrips.

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(Lenteren et al 2002)

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Inoculative Biological Control - Releases of egg-parasitoid wasps in soybean, during consecutive seasons are used against shield bug species. Produces a reduction and delay in the stink bug population peak, maintaining it below EIL

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(Ferreira 1996)

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Pheromone Control – Boll weevil feed on cotton buds and flowers,costing US $15 billion. Males emit wind-borne pheromone attracts females and other males. Artificial synthesis of the pheromone produced effective trapping system (with organophosphates) to detect andsuppress populations. Eradicated from US bar Texas.

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(Smith 1998)

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Insecticide resistance - Colorado potato beetle has almost noeffective control methods, making it a threat to sustainable production.Resistant to 52 different insecticide compounds, through enhancedmetabolism and target site insensitivity, as well as reduced insecticide penetration and increased excretion.

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(Alyokhin et al 2008)

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Cultural Control – Farmers use cultural control to reduce Western corn rootworm pest pressure on Maize production. Crop rotation mainly, as females lay their eggs mainly in maize fields, and larvae inthe following year are largely restricted to maize roots as food. Ploughing, reduces no overwintering larvae.

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(Meissle et al 2009)

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Animals in carrion – Vulture bees are threeclosely related American stingless bees. Feed exclusively on rotting meat. Lack corbicula (pollen collecting organ),workers feed on carrion, nests lack stored pollen. Carrion is broken down by enzyme secretion, and carried back to the nest, modified and stored to be fed to larvae later.

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(Camargo & Roubik 1991)

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Insects in dead wood – Ambrosia carrying beetles in Neotropics bore into the centre of tree trunks and carve intricate tunnel systems(galleries) in phloem. Carrying them in invaginated cuticular structures (mycangia), which maintain fungus in pure, yeastlike, cultures forinoculation. Once introduced, these fungi form mycelia that serve asbeetle food.

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(Farrell et al 2011)

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Cabbagestem flea beetle - pest of oilseed rape in Europe, were controlled by neonicotoid treated seeds. Since ban in 2013, the amount of crop losses to CSFB has massively increased and the area of oil seed rape in UK dropped almost 100,000 ha

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(Dewar 2017)

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Venom/Allergy – Fire ant venom can cause allergic reaction and insome cases anaphylaxis, fatal if untreated. Severe allergic reactionsinclude severe chest pain, nausea, loss of breath, serious swelling,and slurred speech

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(Prahlow & Barnard 1998)

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Ants in soil – Ant nests improve soil fertility through the accumulation of refuse material. External refuse piles are temporarily unstable because of wind and rain, but are easily available by seedlings and small plants. Refuse material in nest chambers are more long-lasting but only large tree roots.

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(Farji-Brener et al 2017)

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HM Pollution Indicator – HMs are deposited on hairy bodies of honeybees and brought back to hive. Lead and nickel are at higher quantities inside and on bees in industrialised areas than natural areas. Must consider effect of weather, season and botanical origin.

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Porrini et al 2003)

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Pollination issues ~ glasshouses – One million colonies are produced annually. The main agricultural crop that bumblebees pollinateis the greenhouse tomato. 50 bumblebee colonies are used per hectare during the growing season. The value of these bumblebee pollinated tomato crops is estimated to be €12000 million per year.

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(Velthuis & van Doorn 2006)

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Conservation Biological Control - Rice brown planthopper (RBP) in Indonesia spread through pesticide use. Mistreated with further pesticides. Lost $109 of rice to the pest. Spiders and surface-dwelling predators are important in controlling RBP. Not applying insecticidesearly in season, and planting long-term crops as corridors, increases natural predators which then provide very effective control.

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(Settle et al 1996)

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Dungbeetles and Livestock – lots of dung in Australia increasedpest fly populations and caused extensive pasture loss. 55 species of dung beetles were imported and 8 established, reducing area covered by waste by 4%. Worth $380million per year to beef industry -avoided costs of fertiliser and production losses from fouling, enteric parasites and flies.

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(Nichols et al 2008)

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Tomato leafminer - pest of tomato originating from South America.Rapidly invaded European countries and has reached UK. Can causeup to 80–100% losses in tomato crops, threatening both greenhouse and open-field production

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(Desneux et al 2010)

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Pollination Syndrome – Investigated 6 communities of flowers and their pollinators from Africa, North America and South America. They showed no plant species fell within the discrete syndrome clusters and most common pollinator could not be successfully predicted.

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(Ollerton et al 2009)

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Non-bee insects as pollinators – 39 field studies from five continents show non-bees performed 25–50% of total flower visits.But they are less effective pollinators per flower visit, they made more visits, resulting in pollination services similar to those of bees. They arenot as reliant as bees on presence of remnant natural or seminatural habitat in the landscape.

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(Rader et al 2016)

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Feed ~ House fly maggots - turn wastes into biomass rich in protein and fat. Large-scale rearing techniques already exist. Chinese white shrimp fed on housefly maggot meal have greater body weight, growth rate and survival

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(Zheng et al 2010)

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Pseudocopulation - Bee orchids attract male scoliid wasps by mimicking virgin females. They produce a scent that stimulates malesto attempt to copulate, and pollen gets stuck on the dorsal surface.

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(Ayasse et al 2003)

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Nectar secretion rate and pollination – Bumblebees avoid recently depleted flowers by responding to repellent scent-marks from previous visitors. Bumblebees alter feeding behaviour for different flowers based on their nectar secretion pattern, insect visitation rate,and the search and handling time.

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(Stout & Goulson 2002)

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Plastic recycling – Polyethylene is major component of plastic production and has numerous C-C bonds. Waxworm develop in honeycombs, where larvae eat beeswax which contains frequent hydrocarbon bonds. It is suspected these C–C single bonds are one of the targets of digestion. Waxworm can chemical breakdown PE by breaking the C–C bonds.

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(Bombelli et al 2017)