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303 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
if ATP energy can be produced by glycolysis and Kreb's cycle, then why run the electron transport chain?
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It yields a huge payoff in ATP energy, 32 ATP.
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Why do we breathe oxygen?
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It is the final electron acceptor and without it, the ETC can't run.
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Where do free oxygen radicals come from?
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If hydrogen doesn't bind to oxygen, a free radical is produced (oxygen plus electrons)
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What is brown fat and how does it work?
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- special fat cells in which ATP synthase shuts off.
- H+ ions pass through another molecule, thermogin, release energy as heat |
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Why does cancer cause people to lose weight?
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- cancer cells grow so fast, lack sufficient oxygen.
- glycolysis is too inefficient (only 2 ATP) - cells can't get energy - people lose weight |
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cardiovascular or circulatory system
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system of pumps/tubes that circulate fluid through the body
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What does Blood contain? How much do we have?
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Contains Plasma and Blood cells
1-1.5 gallons Never leaves vessels |
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interstitial fluid
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water fluid surrounding cells. about 3 mill move around blood vessels
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What drives interstitial fluid in and out of blood vessel?
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pressure differences between inside/outside of blood vessel. Out of artery, back in vein
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hemolymph
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mix of blood/interstitual fluid, not contained in vessels.
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3 parts of open circulatory system (do have hearts)
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a. can't control flow
b. works only for small animals c. body movements increase circulation |
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closed circulatory system (blood never leaves vessels)
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a. blood travels faster in vessels
b. control flow of blood by controlling vessel diameter c. allows higher metabolic rates and activity |
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respiratory pigments
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proteins in blood cells that carry gases. allows blood to carry more oxygen than diffusion alone.
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what is your respiratory pigment?
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hemoglobin
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what is the most common blood disorder?
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anemia - blood carries too little 02. problem with quality not quantity.
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3 important characteristics of blood vessels
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a. elastic walls
b. muscles to control diameter c. values to prevent backflow |
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vasoconstriction
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vessels get smaller, blood pressure goes up
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vasodilation
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vessels get bigger, blood pressure goes down.
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What happens during a heart attack?
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loss of blood and oxygen to heart muscle, heart muscle dies, caused generally by coronary arteries
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tissues irreversibly damaged by lack of oxygen
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myocardial ifarction
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tissues not dead and can be saved if oxygen (blood supply) is restored
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myocardial ischemia
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ischemia
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problem with blood quantity, not quality
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What is Coronary Bypass Surgery?
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-section of blood vessel is taken from body and replaces clogged section of coronary artery of heart
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procedures to remove or deal with plaques
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angioplasty
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What is an Angioplasty?
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Procedure when plaque is blasted w/ laser
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tissues not dead and can be saved if oxygen (blood supply) is restored
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myocardial ischemia
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ischemia
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problem with blood quantity, not quality
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a section of blood vessel is taken from somewhere else in the body and used to replace a clogged section of coronary artery supplying the heart
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coronary bypass surgery
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procedures to remove or deal with plaques
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angioplasty
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3 types of angioplasty
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Laser: blast the plaques with laser
Balloon: inflate a balloon in the artery to open up the artery Stent: small, hollow tube put inside an artery to hold it open |
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What is a Thrombus?
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Blood clot inside a vessel
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when a plaque or thrombus breaks free and moves to another part of the body
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embolism
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balloon-like bulge in a blood vessel; risk of bursting
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aneurysm
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disturbance in the blood supply to the brain. can be cause by ischemia due to thrombus or embolism or due to hemorrhage.
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stroke
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hypertension
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chronic high blood pressure
(can cause heart attack, stroke, aneurysm). cause by anythng that increases blood volume) |
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causes of hypertension
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genetics, aging, lack of sleep, too much salt
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how many muscles are in the human body?
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about 600
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two kinds of filament in muscle
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actin: thin protein
myosin: thick motor protein |
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no ATP is available to pump calcium away so Actin and Myosin filaments remain stuck together and muscles become rigid/stiff
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rigor mortis
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muscle cramps
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imbalances in blood ions, dehydration, or over exertion can cause involuntary release of calcium ions.
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muscle burn
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accumulation of lactic acid after anaerobic respiration
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what causes muscle fatigue?
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calcium channels become leaky. muscle can't fully contract
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What do muscle fiber types differ in?
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differ in concentration of myosin
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fast twitch muscle fibers
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white fibers, explosive speed, no endurance. few mitochondrin. rely on anaerobic respiration so lactic acid builds up (rabbit, cheetah)
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slow twitch muscle fibers
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red fiber, good endurance, slower speed, many mitochondrin, rely on aerobic respiration so lasts long (wolf, swift)
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three systems for generating ATP energy in muscles
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1. phosphagen system: phosphate for ATP formation stored in moleculesof creatine phosphate. lasts about 10 seconds
2. glycolyctic system: use glycolysis and lactate fermentation. last about 1-2 min 3. aerobic respiration: slowest way to produce ATP, but lasts longest. up to several hours |
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genetic control of musculature
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myostatin gene inhibits muscular development. mutations in myostatin cause excessive muscle dev.
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exercise physiology
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exercise doesn't make more muscle. fibers get bigger and move resistant to fatigue
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endurance training
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light weights, many reps, increase # of mitochondria and capillaries serving muscle.
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strength training
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heavy weights, few reps. makes muscle fibers thicher and promotes enzymes used in glycolisis
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muscles burn fuel in this order
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1. sugar
2. fats 3. proteins |
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skeleton
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rigid body support with muscles attached
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hydrostatic skeleton
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fluid or air held under pressure in a closed body compartment
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exoskeleton
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hard skeleton on outside of body (made from protein Chitin)
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endoskeleton
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a hard skeleton on the inside of the body
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what is cartilage made from?
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collagen: protein fibers
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what're bones made from?
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collagen strengthened by calcium phosphate
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how many bones in a human infant
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about 300
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how many bones in a human adult
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about 200-210
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why do adults have less bones than babies
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bones fuse together (skull)
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do men and women have different numbers of rib bones
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no, most have 12 pairs
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four function of bones
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a. movement
b. protect internal organs c. store calcium and phosphorus d. produce red and white blood cells (in bone marrow) |
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osteoclasts
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cells that secrete acids and constantly remove bone
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osteoblasts
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cells thats constantly rebuild bone
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When you add bone mass, what process is happening? Until what age?
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-osteoblasts work faster than osteoclasts
-until about age 24 |
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whats causes osteoperosis?
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produces red and white blood cells and stores fat
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tendons
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muscle to bone
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ligaments
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bone to bone
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cartilage shock absorbers between the bones wear away. usually, the fingers, knees, hips, and back are the most affected.
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osteoarthritis
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unnatural curvature of the spine, side to side or front to back, or rotation. pain, uneven arms or breasts. thought to be controlled by genetics
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scoliosis
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softening of bones due to vitamin d deficiency. most common childhood disease in many developing countries
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rickets
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incompletely formed spine and vertabrae so spine cord sticks out of back. most common birth defect. reduced by eating leafy vegetables
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spina bifida
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the exchange of gases between an organism and the surrounding environment. (take in oxygen, breathe out carbon dioxide)
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respiration
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increasing the flow of water or air over the respiratory surfaces
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ventilation
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4 important points about the diffusion of gases.
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a. gases must pass through liquids to get to cells
b. greater the surface area for gas exchange, the more gas can diffuse c. diffusion depends on gas concentration and gas pressure d. oxygen diffuses about 8,000 times faster in air than water |
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human alveolar surface area
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1,000ft squared
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what type of water holds the most dissolved oxygen?
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cold, fresh
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what type of water holds the least dissolved oxygen?
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warm, salt
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how much oxygen does water hold compared to air? why?
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air holds 20 times as much dissolved oxygen as water. O2 is nonpolar, H2O is polar.
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what forces drive gas into water
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atmospheric pressure, hemoglobin, concentration gradients
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outfoldings of the body surface that suspended in the water for gas exchange
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gills
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insects: spiracles
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portholes on the outside of an insect's body for gas exchange
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what do spiracles connect to?
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tracheal system
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does the open circulatory system of insects transport oxygen and carbon dioxide?
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no, tracheal system touches all cells in the body
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What is positive respiration? what is an example?
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air pushed into lungs, then sucked out
ex. amphibians |
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metamorphosis
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many amphibians use gills as juveniles (tadpoles or newts), lungs as adults
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What is Pulmocutaneous Respiration?
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respiration through the skin
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birds: air sacs
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have lungs, air sacs attached to lungs
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What are three reasons why the Air Sac system in Birds is the most efficient respiratory system?
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a. one way air flow
b. prevents mixing with old and new air. c. reduces weight |
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What is negative pressure respiration? what organisms use it?
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-air sucked in, then pushed out
-mammals use it |
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what kind of ventilation do mammals have?
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tidal ventilation
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how's the diaphragm work?
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diaphragm down, air sucked into lungs
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what's the name for the windpipe
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trachia
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what's the voicebox called
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larynx
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what's the trachea branch into
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bronchi
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what do the bronchi branch into
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bronchioles
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what do the bronchioles branch into
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alveoli
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how many alveoli does the average human have
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300 million
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where's gas exchange take place?
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alveoli
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does your brain tell you to breathe?
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yes
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how do we know when to breathe more?
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when CO2 levels are too high
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condition involves the involuntary contraction of the muscles and constriction of the airway; often caused by allergies or sudden temp change
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asthma
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irreversible degerative disease. loss of elasticity in small airways, result in small airways collapse during exhalation
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emphysema
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What is COPD? (Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease)
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combination of Emphysema and Chronic Bronchitis
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ventilation to the lungs is stopped for short periods. caued by brain's inability to regulate respiration
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apnea
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What is SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome)?
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brain has trouble reading CO2 levels properly when born
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inflammation of the lungs that leads to an accumulation of fluid and impairs lung function
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pneumonia
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virus contains genes from five different influenza viruses
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H1N1
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what controls breathe for aquatic animals
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O2 levels
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What is Emphysema?
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Irreversible Degerative Disease
-loss of elasticity in small airways -small airways collapse during exhalation |
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combination of emphysema and chronic bonchitis
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COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
|
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ventilation to the lungs is stopped for short periods. caued by brain's inability to regulate respiration
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apnea
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brain has trouble reading CO2 lvesls properly
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SIDS sudden infant death syndrome
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inflammation of the lungs that leads to an accumulation of fluid and impairs lung function
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pneumonia
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virus contains genes from five different influenza viruses
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H1N1
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what controls breathing for aquatic animals
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oxygen levels
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what is the deadliest infectious disease in the world
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acute respiratory infection
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pathogen
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an infectious disease causing organism
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infection
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a pathogen invades a cell or multi celled organism
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epidemic
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a disease spreads through part of a population
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pandemic
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epidemic spreads through many populations at the same time
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why don't pathogens kill us all?
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a. we evolved with them. our immune system can kill most of them
b. they kill each other |
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where do antibiotics come from, why?
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bacteria and fungi, b/c they compete for resources and infect eachother
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prudent parasite argument
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parasites shouldn't kill their hosts or else they can't be spread to other hosts
|
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binary fission
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asexual, produces 2 identical cells, can be very fast
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conjugation
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direct exchange of DNA through conjugation tube or sexpili
|
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irreversible degerative disease. loss of elasticity in small airways, result in small airways collapse during exhalation
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emphysema
|
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combination of emphysema and chronic bonchitis
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COPD chronic obstructive pulmonary disease
|
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What is Apnea? What is it caused by?
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-Ventilation to the lungs is stopped for short periods
-caused by brain's inability to regulate respiration |
|
brain has trouble reading CO2 levels properly
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SIDS sudden infant death syndrome
|
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inflammation of the lungs that leads to an accumulation of fluid and impairs lung function
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pneumonia
|
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virus contains genes from five different influenza viruses
|
H1N1
|
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what controls breathe for aquatic animals
|
O2 levels
|
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what is the deadliest infectious disease in the world
|
acute respiratory infection
|
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What is a pathogen?
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an infectious disease causing organism
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infection
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a pathogen invades a cell or multi celled organism
|
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epidemic
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a disease spreads through part of a population
|
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pandemic
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epidemic spreads through many populations at the same time
|
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why don't pathogens kill us all
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a. we evolved with them, our immune system can kill most of them
b. they kill each other |
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where do antibiotics come from, why?
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bacteria and fungi, they compete for resources and infect eachother
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prudent parasite argument
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parasites shouldn't kill their hosts or else they can't be spread to other hosts
|
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binary fission
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asexual, produces 2 identical cells
|
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conjugation
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direct exchange of DNA through conjugation tube or sexpili
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transformation
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uptake of DNA directly from the environment
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transduction
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transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another by a virus, used in gene therapy
|
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endospores
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bacterial spore than can survive harsh conditions (heat, radiation, drying)
|
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bacteria either evolve by mutation or acquire from another bacterium the ability to detoxify a particular antibiotic
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antibiotic resistance
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symbiosis b/w bacteria and plant roots that help plants get nitrogen out of the soil
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rhizobium
|
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viruses 3 characteristics
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a. 1,000 to 10,000 times smaller than bacteria
b. DNA or RNA in a protein coat c. can't reproduce self |
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What are Three characteristics of the Viroids?
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a. strands of RNA-no protein coat
b. pathogens of plants c. resemble introns (noncoding regions of eukaryotic DNA) |
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antibiotics do or do not kill viruses
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no, your immune system does
|
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prions, infections protein 2 characteristics
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a. misfolded proteins that make other proteins misfold and accumulate in brain tissue
b. resistant to boiling, baking, radiation, disinfectants |
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protists
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single-celled eukaryotes placed in own kingdom
|
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what're dinoflagellates
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single celled protists, cause algal bloom
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what's red tide
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dinoflagellate population explosion. relase toxins into water that can kill fish and humans
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what're algae
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colonial protists, not plants
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Differentiate Golden Algae from others.
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diatoms give off as much oxygen every year as land plants
|
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What is another name for brown algae? What is its function
|
kelp: important structure in marine ecosystems
|
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red algae
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source of agar used in jellies and cosmetics and eaten as food
|
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green algae
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sea lettuce. not a plant, but evolved into green plants
|
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fungi diseases
|
mycoses
|
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what important role do fungi play in ecosystems
|
decomposers in ecosystem
|
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what is the main component of the fungal cell wall
|
chitin
|
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what kills fungi
|
fungicides
|
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what're hyphae
|
chain of connected cells
|
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what's a mycelium
|
interwoven mat hyphae that forms the body of the fungus
|
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type of nutrition fungi have
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absorptive
|
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saprobic fungi
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feed on dead organisms
|
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parasitic fungi
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feed on living organisms
|
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specialized hyphae that invade living cells and secrete digestive enzymes
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haustoria
|
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rapidly growing asexually reproducing fungus
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mold
|
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unicellular fungi that lives in damp places and can reproduce by budding. inhabit plant sap
|
yeast
|
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a symbiotic relationship between a fungus and a photosynthetic cyanobacterial cell or a photosynthetic green algae
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lichen
|
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a symbiotic relationship between plant roots and fungi that helps plants absorb nutrients from soil, particularly phosphorus
|
mycorrhizae
|
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leaf cutter ants
|
fungi farmers. live symbiotically with fungi
|
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special defenses (good, but slow)
|
attack only certain pathogens. cells have memory. response time could be weeks
|
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T Cells
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WBC's help control immune responses, and tell B when to divide.
|
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B Cells
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-WBC's make antibodies that attack to antigens
-Each B cell makes antibody for one kind of antigen. |
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antibodies
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proteins that bind to antigens and signal other cells to attack antigen
|
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plasma cells
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antibody factories, each plasma cell can produce millions of antibodies
|
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memory cells
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plasma cells that remain dormant until same antigen is found in the body again
|
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what're immunodeficiency diseases
|
diseases in which the immune system itself is attacked
|
|
how does HIV (AIDS) virus work?
|
destroys T cells
|
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what happens if you don't have enough T cells
|
no plasma cells. no memory cells
|
|
cells surface proteins that mark cells as self or nonself. if not your cells, they will be attacked and destroyed by your immune system
|
Mhc proteins
|
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what're autoimmune disorders?
|
system attacks own cells
|
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T Cells
|
WBC's help control immune responses, and tell B when to divide.
|
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What are B-cells? What makes them unique?
|
-WBC's that make antibodies that attack to antigens
-B cell makes one kind of antibody for one kind of antigen. |
|
antibodies
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proteins that bind to antigens and signal other cells to attack antigen
|
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plasma cells
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antibody factories, each plasma cell can produce millions of antibodies
|
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memory cells
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plasma cells that remain dormant until same antigen is found in the body again
|
|
what're immunodeficiency diseases
|
diseases in which the immune system itself is attacked
|
|
how does HIV (AIDS) virus work?
|
destroys T cells
|
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what happens if you don't have enough T cells
|
no plasma cells. no memory cells
|
|
cells surface proteins that mark cells as self or nonself. if not your cells, they will be attacked and destroyed by your immune system
|
Mhc proteins
|
|
what're autoimmune disorders? 3 examples
|
system attacks own cells
1. multiple sclerosis 2. type 1 diabetes 3. graves' disease |
|
how do vaccines work
|
-dead pathogens or antigens are injected into body
-don't cause disease, do stimulate memory cells |
|
what's passive immunity
|
short term immunity using antibodies produced outside body
|
|
How is Snake Bite Antivenin farmed?
|
1. snake venom is collected, injected into horses or rabbits
2. rabbits produce antibodies for venom 3. antibodies collected/concentrated |
|
mothers transfer some antibodies across the placenta to the developing fetus to give them protection against diseases the mother has already had; breastfeeding does this too
|
maternal antibodies
|
|
if traveling out of the country, you may receive antibodies prepared from the blood of other humans from that geographic area for short term protection against local diseases, like Hepatitis A
|
gamma globulin
|
|
What is an Allergic Reaction?
|
-Overproduction of antibodies
-Release of Histamines-->drop blood pressure |
|
anaphylactic shock
|
whole body allergic reaction. can be fatal
|
|
what do you take if Anaphylactic Shock occurs
|
Adrenaline/epinephrine
|
|
What are Antigens?
|
-any substance that stimulates an immune response
can be pathogens, part of pathogens, or even dirt |
|
it's a separate circulatory system that transports interstitial fluid from tcells back to the blood's circulatory system
|
lymphatic system
|
|
whats the function of the lymphatic system
|
filter pathogens and antigens from from interstitial fluid
|
|
where are white blood cells formed, where do they mature
|
bone marrow, thymus gland
|
|
filters out of red blood cells, produces some white blood cells, and removes pathogens and antigens your body has already attacked and killed
|
spleen
|
|
non specific defenses
|
attack any pathogen that's not recognized as self
|
|
first non specific defense against infection and disease
4 parts |
a. Skin, Exoskeleton, or other body covering- prevents pathogens from entering body
b. Tears, Sweat, Saliva- have enzyme lysozyme that kills many bacteria c. Mucus- washes pathogens away from the body d. Stomach Acid and other acids- can kill many pathogens |
|
natural killer cells
|
white blood cells that attack bacteria, viruses, and cancer cells
|
|
perforins
|
proteins that poke holes in pathogens
|
|
macrophages
|
white blood cells that can eat whole bacterial viruses
|
|
inflammation
|
redness, swelling, heat
|
|
produced by mast cells and imakes capillaries dilate and become leaky causing redness and swelling. antihistamines block this action
|
histamines
|
|
hormone produced by cells near affected area. induces fever and inflammation. aspirin blocks it
|
prostaglandis
|
|
why do you respond to infection or injury with inflammation
|
trap pathogens at path of injury immobilize joint
|
|
why do we get a fever
|
immune system works better at a higher temp.
|
|
glands
|
groups of cells organized into organs that secrete hormones
|
|
endocrine gland
|
secrete hormones directly into the blood or interstitial fluid
|
|
exocrine gland
|
ducts or tubes that lead out of the body or into the gut (sweat, salivary glands)
|
|
What are Hormones?
|
produced by one cell that influences the activity of other cells
|
|
target cells
|
able to respond to the hormone
|
|
receptors
|
proteins on the target cells that will bind to specific hormones
|
|
true hormones
|
secreted directly into blood stream (epinephrine, estrogen)
|
|
paracrine hormone
|
produced by one cell and moves a short distance through interstitial fluid to reach target cells.
|
|
neurohormone
|
secreted by nerve cells and travel in the blood stream to distant target cells (oxytocin)
|
|
pheromonen (2 examples)
|
compounds secreted by one individual that affect target cells in another individual
1. babies respnd positively to mom's clothes, neg to another woman's clothes 2. women who spend time together synchronize menstrual cycles |
|
neurotransmitter
|
hormones secreted between nerve cells, b/w nerve cells and muscle cells, or b/w cells and glands.
|
|
hypothalamus
|
inside brain
|
|
oxytocin
|
produced after labor contractions to help a mother love her baby after childbirth, also after orgasm.
|
|
pituitary gland
|
near hypothalamus; stores ADH and oxytocin
|
|
endorphins
|
'feel good' after strenuous exercise or orgasm
|
|
What is another name for the Human Growth Hormone (HGH)? When are the biggest peaks?
|
somatotropin: released in peaks that occur daily. biggest peaks occur during puberty
|
|
4 roles in body (HGH)
|
a. increase height in children
b. increase size and strength of bones c. increase muscle mass d. stimulate growth of all internal organs except brain |
|
problems with HGH
|
may promote growth of colon, lung, breast cancers. may increase diabetes risk
|
|
adrenal gland
|
on top of kidneys. produce cortisol and adrenaline, involved in stress response
|
|
adrenaline
|
activated by direct nerve stimulation from the brain to the adrenal glands (fast)
|
|
What is Cortisol used for? What does it result from?
|
-slow stress response
-produced under chronic stress |
|
ovaries and testes
|
secrete the sex hormones, primarily estrogen and testosterone
|
|
testosterone
|
main anabolic steroid produced by the body
|
|
anabolic effects
|
build muscle and bone mass
|
|
What are the Androgenic Effects on the body?
|
responsible for maleness traits such as facial hair, deep voice, aggression
|
|
estrogen
|
female secondary sexual characteristics: breasts, menstrual cycle. male libido, sperm maturation.
|
|
breast cancer
|
about 80% of breast cancers rely on estrogen to grow so treatments involve suppression
|
|
pineal gland
|
in your brain. receptors are in your eyes. regulates circardian rhythms--sleep/wake cycles
|
|
what hormones does the pineal secrete in response to darkness?
|
melatonin promotes sleep and inhibits sperm and egg production. affects mood
|
|
where's the thyroid gland
|
in your throat
|
|
What is Thyroxine? Where is it produced? What does it control?
|
-Hormone controls metabolism
-Produced by thyroid gland |
|
what's required to make thyroxine, from where
|
iodine, iodized salt
|
|
What does the Pancreas do?
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-Organ in digestive system
-Regulates blood sugar levels |
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What is diabetes mellitus? What's the difference b/wn Type 1 and Type 2?
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hyperglycemia
Type 1- immune system destroys insulin-producing cells of pancreas Type 2- cells lose sensitivity to insulin |
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gestational diabetes
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hormones produced during pregnancy interfere with insulin; goes away after childbirth
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What is leptin produced by? What relates to the amount produced?
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produced by fat cells, amount produced relates to size of fat cells
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What does CCK do? (cholecystokinin) Where is it produced?
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-Tells the brain you're full, reduces desire to eat
-Small intestine |
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ghrelin
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a peptide hormone secreted by the cells of the stomach lining and hypothalamus. makes you hungry
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nervous system
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specialized cells sense environment and allow rapid, long distance communication between cells
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central nervous system
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brain and spinal cord
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What is the Peripheral Nervous System made up of?
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all the nerves connected to brain and spinal cord
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What are neurons?
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cells specialized for conducting electrical charges
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sensory neuron
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directly sense environment sends signals to CNS
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nociceptor
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send pain signals to brain, detect damage to brain
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What do motor neurons do? where do they receive signals from?
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-attach to muscles and glands and make them work
-receive signals from CNS |
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mirror neuron
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neuron that fires when an animal acts and when it sees another animal perform the same direction
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waht's a reflex
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involuntaqry response to external stimulus
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cell body
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main part of cell with nucleus and other cell organelles
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dendrite
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bring info to cell body
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axon
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carry info away from cell body
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myelin sheath
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lipid rich insulation around axon
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whats the 2 main functions of the myelin sheath
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insulation, make nerve impulsse faster
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synapse
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tiny spaces between nerve cells or between nerve and muscle or gland cells
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nociceptor
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send pain signals to brain, detect damage to brain
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motor neuron
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attach to muscles and glands and make them work. receive signals from CNS
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mirror neuron
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neuron that fires when an animal acts and when it sees another animal perform the same direction
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waht's a reflex
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involuntaqry response to external stimulus
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cell body
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main part of cell with nucleus and other cell organelles
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dendrite
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bring info to cell body
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axon
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carry info away from cell body
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myelin sheath
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lipid rich insulation around axon
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whats the 2 main functions of the myelin sheath
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insulation, make nerve impulsse faster
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synapse
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tiny spaces between nerve cells or between nerve and muscle or gland cells
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membrane potential
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the resting diff. in charge between the inside and outside of a nerve cell
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What are the charge of most nerve cells on the inside? What charge are most proteins and DNA?
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Most are negative, DNA and proteins are mostly negative
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What is the type of nerve cell at rest? What is it's charge?
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Na+, with a positive charge
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action potential
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temp reversal of charge between inside and outside of nerve cell
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sodium channel
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protein channel in nerve cell membrane that controls flow of Na ions into cell. more Na outside than inside
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What is the Potassium Channel?
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-protein channel in nerve cell membrane that controls flow of Na out of cell
-more K inside than outside |
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sodium potassium pump
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uses ATP to pump sodium ions back out and pump potassium ions back in
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how does an action potential nerve impulse move along an axon? 4 pts
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1. Na+ channel opens. Na+ flow in cell. reverse charge, pos in neg outside
2. step 1 causes next Na+ channel to open, action potential moves along axon away from cell body 3. K+ channels open right after Na+ channel, K+ flows out and restores neg. charge inside, pos chare outside 4. sodium - potassium pump use ATP energy to pump Na+ back out and K+ back in. membrane potential restored |
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how fasgt do nerve impulses travel in vertebrates
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fastest about 400ft/sec, 272 mph
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invertebrates lack the myelin sheath. how fast do their nerve impulses travel?
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6.6 ft/sec or 4/5mph
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neurotransmitters
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hormones secreted into the snapse between nerve cells or between nerve and muscle cells
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where are neurotransmitters stored
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small vesicles at the tips of axon
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what causes release of nerotransmitters into the synaptic space
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Ca ions flow in nerve cells and release neurotransmitters
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after neurotransmitters used, what happens to them
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they're either reabsorbed and reused by nerve cells or destroyed by enzymes
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depression
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low levels of norepinephrine
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How does Cocaine Addiction work?
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-Blocks reabsorption of dopamine
-Body makes enzymes, needs more to get rid of extra dopamine |
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neurons and reproduction
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some neurons release gas
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how's viagra work
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blocks an enzyme that blocks (NO) allowing (NO) to work
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How does Novocaine work?
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works by blocking Na+ channels from opening
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What do neurotoxins do?
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many block ion channels from opening or closing
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How does high Alcohol consumption affect the Central Nervous System?
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-can block potassium channels open and make them leaky-> lowers membrane potential -> slower reactions, blurred vision, stumbling slurred speech.
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