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348 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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is photosyntheses anabolism or catabolism
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anabolism
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what is the formula for makeing food?
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CO2 + H2O = CH2O + O2
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carnivorous plants have
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phtosynthesis
poor Nitrogen soil |
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O traces from where to get water
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H2O
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grana is
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a stack in stroma
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stroma is inside chloroplast
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with grana inside and thylakoid is the individual rings
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first step of phtosynthesis is in
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thylakoid
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second step in photosyn is in
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stroma
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pigments are
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complex biological chemicals that absorb light
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3 pigments
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chlorophyll a and b
and carotenoid |
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what is the visible light spectrum
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ROYGBV
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Cholorphyll a and b are
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primary light gathering
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cholophyll a and b are made out of
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porphyrin ring
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a porphyrin ring is made out of
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magnesium
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what differentiates chlorophyll a and b
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a has methy group
b has an aldehyde |
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photon is a
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partical containing energy
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a photon does what
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puts kinetic energy in pigments
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the light reaction functions how
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an electron is shot to the PS2 at P680 and then it excites moving to 1 e acceptor, it then moves down trhough pq, cyt,pc, and then ps1 shoot up to 1 e acceptor and then reductase moves to NADP which then gets a H and makes NADPH
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Light reactions happen
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thylakoid membranw
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P680 replaces its e
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from H2O
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too much NADPH results in what?
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the PS2 doesnt get used and it repeats through pq cyt and pc
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dark reactions are the
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calvin cycle
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rubisco does what?
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puts co2 into calvin
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describe the process of calvin
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co2 and then rubisco which moves to the complex, phosphate is added to make 3-phosphoglycerate
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after 3-phosphogylcerate what happens in calvin
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2 ATP are added making 1-3 bisphosphoglycerate
a |
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after phosphoglycerate what occurrs in calving?
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2 NADPH is added and 2 phosphate leave making glyceraldehyde 3-P then splits off into the sugar and the ribulose phosphate, atp added to make RUBP then back to CO2
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how many times does calvin happen to produce 6 glucose
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36
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C4 plants
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have stomata that open and close to not release h2o
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co2 is put into where to slow down phtosynthesis
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OAA
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OAA does this
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slow down phtosynthesis
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in desert plants stomata are open when
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at night
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cell cycle
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G1 to S to G2 to M to G1
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where are the gates located in mitosis
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between g1 and s. start of M and end of M
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which phase is the longest
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metaphase
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which pahse is the fastest?
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anaphase
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what is a chromosome
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threadlike gene carrying structure in nucleous
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chromatin
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before choromosome large mass wrapped around histones
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nerve cells
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do not open the gate up from g1 to s to regenerate after age 6
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tumors
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benign or malignant metastasis spreads
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soma means?
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body
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somatic cells have how many chromosomes?
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46
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another name for somatic
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2N diploid
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sex cells
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arenot somatic
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another name for sex cells
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haploid N
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meiosis is how
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sex cells multiply
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homologous pair is
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tetrad
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there are how many chromatids
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4 to a tetrad
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chrossing over in chromosome is
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chiasmata
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touching of a chromosome is a
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synapsis
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metaphase 1
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lining up of chromosomes in center of nucleous
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anaphase 1
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chromosome pairs pull acorss each side
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telephase 1
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haploid is produced
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meiosis 2
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more like mitosis
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prophase 2
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side by side colums
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metaphase 2
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line up in straight line
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anaphase 2
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actual chromosome pulls apart
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telophase 2
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cleavage made
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oogenesis
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is how an ovum is produced takes place in ovaries
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oogonia is a stem cell
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that is 2N diploid and is multipotent
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an egg is produced then...
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mitosis happens and maked oogonia 2N
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after an oogonia 2N is produced...
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meiosis 1 prophase 1 happens and then stops
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why does the oogonia stop after prophase 1?
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rests until puberty
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after the oogonia stops at puberty how does it proceed after puberty
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1 oocyte is produced and then also a polar body
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and N oocyte goes through meisis and metaphase 2 to produce
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an ovum it is N
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the ovum does not go through more meisois until
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fertilization
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spermatogenesis happens in
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the testicles
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spermatagonia is a stem cell that is
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multipotent and 2N
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spermatagonia are 2N and constantly do
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mitosis
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and N oocyte goes through meisis and metaphase 2 to produce
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an ovum it is N
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both daughter cells are viable in what process
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spermatogenesis
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the ovum does not go through more meisois until
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fertilization
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spermacytes stop after meiosis until?
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puberty
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spermatogenesis happens in
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the testicles
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When do spermatagonia become N
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when the become spermacytes
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spermatagonia is a stem cell that is
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multipotent and 2N
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after meiosis 2, what are spermacytes re named
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spermatid
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spermatagonia are 2N and constantly do
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mitosis
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chromatin is
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DNA and protin or a histone which is a protein. in interphase
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both daughter cells are viable in what process
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spermatogenesis
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spermacytes stop after meiosis until?
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puberty
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When do spermatagonia become N
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when the become spermacytes
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after meiosis 2, what are spermacytes re named
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spermatid
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chromatin is
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DNA and protin or a histone which is a protein. in interphase
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a chromosome is
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wrapped chromatin
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a centromere is
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the point at which two parts chromatids of a chromosome join and at which the spindle fibers are attached during cell division mitosis
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a locus on a chromosome is also known as a
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gene
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what are to locus called
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loci
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greger mendel dealt with
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probability and inheritance
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when did greger mendel work with probability and inheritance
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early 1900's
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20 amino acid complex is a
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protein
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1928 who found that dna are information bearing molecules
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friffith
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what did griffith test
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streptococcus pneumoniae
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what was concluded from the griffith experiment
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that s strand could transform r strand and still kill
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a pathogen is
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a disease causing organism
|
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virulence
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how sick it makes
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1952 alfred hershey and chase proves that
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a virus will continue to be reproduced in phosphate or DNA not sulfur
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DNA runs
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anti parrallel
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a form is
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not symetrical
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purines
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adenine guanine
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pyrimidines
|
thymine cytosine uracil
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B form
|
invivo
2 nano meters pitch is 3.4 angstroms 34 A per turn 10 base pairs per turn right handed |
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A form
|
invitro
dry 11 base pairs per turn right handed more compressed less distinct grooves |
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Z from
|
invivo and invitro
12 base pairs per turn left handed no grooves compressed used for control system for genes |
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H form
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invivo
triple helix DNA palendrom bases TCTCTCTC used for packaging short strand |
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Exon is
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information area
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intron
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intervening between genes
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which side carries information
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sense strand
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phosphate is held on what side of DNA
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5'
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what is located on the 3' side
|
carbon and new nucleotide
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central dogma
|
DNA . replication. transcription. RNA. translation. Protein. expression. traits.
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replication is
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semi conservative .5 copied
|
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theories on replication
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despersive
semi conservative conservative |
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bacteria dna is
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circular
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replication goes how many directions
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2
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points on replication bubble or replicon
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P-origin
T terminal point box. replication forks |
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nuclease is a
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repair error enzyme
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1 error every billion
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so 3 errors for DNA
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major enzyme responsible for transcription of DNA in celss
|
RNA polymerase
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enzyme used to break hydrogen bonds in preparation fro replication
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helocase
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diection of parent DNA strand will the transcription process proceed
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3' to 5'
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point mutation involving the loss of a base
|
deletion
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how does mRNA leave the nucleous
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poly a tail
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removing introns
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snRNA
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complementary to a specific sequence on the mRNA and a protein that cuts the strand
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SNRP
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RNA that transfers genetic code to become expression
|
tRNA
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transcription happens on which strand
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sense strand
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ribosome is occupied by the growing peptide strand and a tRNA
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P peptidyl
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correct name for newly translated RNA
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mRNA
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portion of the end of the DNA strand is lost at every replication is
|
telomers
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large subunit ribosome holds
|
APE and tRNA
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small subunit helps
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to show where the large should bind
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a telomer is at the what end
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5' end
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telomerase is
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an enzyme that is able to restore DNa to original forme in the gamete
in all other cells that gametes telomerase must remain off |
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origin site consits
|
ATATATTATATATATATTATATAT
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why are A and T at origin site
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2 hydrogen bonds
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repication does or does not move
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does NOT
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Transcription is done by
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RNA
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RNA characteristics
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single stranded, ribose, usually not a double helix
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types of RNA
|
mRNA
rRNA tRNA snRNA miRNA RNAi |
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mRNA
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carries code from DNA, messenger
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rRNA
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is ribosomal RNA
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tRNA
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transfers code to amino acid forme
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snRNA
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small nuclear RNA
does RNA processing |
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miRNA
|
microRNA
deals with regulation associated with expression |
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RNAi
|
interference RNA
deals with regulation associated with expression |
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TATA
|
comes before the promoter and tells it to get ready to begin transcription
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the initiatior is
|
really where transcription begins
|
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terminator
|
tells transcribition to wind down and stop but doesn't really stop till fall off
|
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RNA polymerase
|
adds bases
opens at initiator and transcribes till fall off |
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uracil cannot maintain a
|
helix
|
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RNA polymerase reads which strand
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sense strand
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the RNA transcript is not ready to be used so it is called
|
pmRNA
|
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sense strand is the
|
gene
|
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origin site consits
|
ATATATTATATATATATTATATAT
|
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why are A and T at origin site
|
2 hydrogen bonds
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repication does or does not move
|
does NOT
|
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Transcription is done by
|
RNA
|
|
|
RNA characteristics
|
single stranded, ribose, usually not a double helix
|
|
|
types of RNA
|
mRNA
rRNA tRNA snRNA miRNA RNAi |
|
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mRNA
|
carries code from DNA, messenger
|
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rRNA
|
is ribosomal RNA
|
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tRNA
|
transfers code to amino acid forme
|
|
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snRNA
|
small nuclear RNA
does RNA processing |
|
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RNA always starts copying on 5' on RNA going
|
3' to 5' running anti parallel to the DNA strand
|
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TATA is the sequence on the
|
anti sense
|
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RNA processing is needed to
|
convey information
|
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DNA and pre mRNA is
|
exon and intron existing within the exon
|
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5' cap is also known as
|
GTP
|
|
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splicesome is
|
complementary bind to the sequence right on the border of the eon
|
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The sRNA is what actually
|
bindto the p mRNA
|
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the snRNP is what actually
|
does the cutting
|
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|
ribozymes are
|
self splicing RNA
|
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a ribozyme is NOT
|
a protein
|
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Translating is
|
reading code to protein in the ER or a free floating ribosome
|
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AUG is
|
methyamine
start codon universal only time gene is coded for is to start a gene or protein |
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|
Translating runs
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5' to 3'
|
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transcribing runs
|
3' to 5'
|
|
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translation is a
|
mechanism
|
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|
translation happens in
|
the cytoplasm
|
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tRNA has a
|
decoder known as an anti-codon
|
|
|
mRNA is complemented by
|
tRNA
|
|
|
robosomes have a
|
large and small subunit
|
|
|
Translating is
|
reading code to protein in the ER or a free floating ribosome
|
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rRNA is associated with
|
ribosomes
|
|
|
AUG is
|
methyamine
start codon universal only time gene is coded for is to start a gene or protein |
|
|
Translating runs
|
5' to 3'
|
|
|
transcribing runs
|
3' to 5'
|
|
|
translation is a
|
mechanism
|
|
|
translation happens in
|
the cytoplasm
|
|
|
tRNA has a
|
decoder known as an anti-codon
|
|
|
mRNA is complemented by
|
tRNA
|
|
|
robosomes have a
|
large and small subunit
|
|
|
rRNA is associated with
|
ribosomes
|
|
|
Translating is
|
reading code to protein in the ER or a free floating ribosome
|
|
|
AUG is
|
methyamine
start codon universal only time gene is coded for is to start a gene or protein |
|
|
Translating runs
|
5' to 3'
|
|
|
transcribing runs
|
3' to 5'
|
|
|
translation is a
|
mechanism
|
|
|
translation happens in
|
the cytoplasm
|
|
|
tRNA has a
|
decoder known as an anti-codon
|
|
|
mRNA is complemented by
|
tRNA
|
|
|
robosomes have a
|
large and small subunit
|
|
|
rRNA is associated with
|
ribosomes
|
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|
translation factors
|
tell ribosome to bond
|
|
|
E is
|
exit
|
|
|
P is
|
where peptide is bonded
|
|
|
A is first
|
aminoacyl
|
|
|
water is what breaks the
|
peptide bond
|
|
|
in Proks translation and transcription is
|
simultaneous
|
|
|
Ruks leave the
|
nucleus
|
|
|
SRP
|
signal recognition partical
|
|
|
SRP does
|
becomes membrane protein or export
|
|
|
point mutation
|
few bases
|
|
|
substitution is
|
replacing a base
can be silent mis sense mutation is possible |
|
|
mutations can be a ____ disease
|
genetic
|
|
|
insertion is
|
non sense
|
|
|
deletion is
|
non sense
mis sense |
|
|
what causes mutations
|
chemical, or radiation
|
|
|
mutigens are
|
chemical or radiation related
|
|
|
beneficial mutations
|
rare
may be part of evolution |
|
|
expression
|
control regulation
|
|
|
everything before expression is....
|
mechanism
|
|
|
Proks
|
bacteia is circular
|
|
|
types of bacteria
|
bacillus
coccus spirillus |
|
|
parts of bacteria
|
cell wall(peptidoglycan)
capsule flagella pilus plasmids |
|
|
e.coli is
|
used in bacillus research
to digest food produced to make vitamin K found in colon |
|
|
anti biotics
|
make bacteria resistant
|
|
|
MRSA
|
resistant staphlococcus aureus
Vanka myicin is the only thing to kill MRSA |
|
|
VRSA
|
vankamyicin resistant
cannot be stoppped resistant to all bacteria |
|
|
bacteial expression is done by
|
operons
a gene that control expression |
|
|
types of operons
|
repressible and incucible
|
|
|
an inducible is usually
|
off and needs to be turned on
|
|
|
a repressible is
|
usually on but needs to go off
|
|
|
and inducible is off because
|
the repressor gene protein is attached to the operator to block RNA polymerase
|
|
|
when an inducible gets turned on,
|
the repressor gene enzyme leaves and the Cap and cAMP attach
|
|
|
lac operon can only be turned on when
|
lactose is present and glucose is not
|
|
|
when there is no glucose in a lac operon, ther is lots of
|
cAMP
|
|
|
a repressible
|
is trp operon
|
|
|
the trp operon is only shut off when
|
there is trp being produced in the surrounding environment
|
|
|
Euks mean
|
true nucleous
|
|
|
most control takes place during
|
transcription
|
|
|
operon deals with
|
transcription in euks
|
|
|
methylation is
|
genomic imprinting
hetorochromatic methlation is adding of a mythyl group with enzyme methylate causes gene to turn off |
|
|
demethylation is
|
going from euchromating to heterochromatin
|
|
|
adding a phosphate to a methylated genom
|
makes methyls break off and turnn gene on again because it becomes euchromatin
|
|
|
genomic imprinting is
|
permanent
methylation turn off determines sex turns off other enzymes |
|
|
acetylation is the
|
reverse of methylation
|
|
|
acetylation makes
|
euchromatin
|
|
|
Acetylation adds on
|
an acetyl group
|
|
|
deaccetylation
|
turns off
|
|
|
epigenetics
|
other types of inheritence
|
|
|
transcription is the
|
control
|
|
|
enhances and activators are located
|
on DNA piece
|
|
|
DCE stands for
|
Distol control elements
attach to transcription enhancers and activators |
|
|
DCE are about 1000 base parits aways from
|
PCE
|
|
|
PCW
|
promimal control elements
control promoter transcription factors |
|
|
after enhancers proteins attach and bend strand and help transcription
|
factors attach and then RNA poly begins
|
|
|
The more DCE
|
the more expression of the gene
|
|
|
blocking transcription
|
zinc fingers
leucine zippers alpha helices |
|
|
blocking transcription factors
|
clamp onto grooves, sense strand on the promoter
|
|
|
processing regulation
|
feed back inhibition
varriation allows anti-bodies anormous amounts of variation |
|
|
process control is deciding
|
what variation to preform
|
|
|
translational control
|
regulate ribozoomes
block them |
|
|
protein control
|
shut down protein production
destroy |
|
|
lysomomes and proteasomes
|
deal with protein control
lysosome completely destroy protein by engulfing... permanent proteasomes, truns off, not kill always |
|
|
mRNA control
|
miRNA and RNAi start inactive
|
|
|
MRNA is clustered and therefore
|
inactive
|
|
|
when MRNA breaks off it is
|
active
|
|
|
miRNA blocks
|
mRNA and then cuts
|
|
|
bad genes
|
viruses can be transposons
|
|
|
bad genes have everything to do with
|
control
|
|
|
environment has a major effect on
|
bad genes
|
|
|
pro-oncogenes
|
deal with growth of a cell
|
|
|
Transposon is a
|
jumping gene, turned on permanently
DNA transposed in promoter |
|
|
promoter duplicated and permanent describes a
|
gene amplification
double expression occures no control |
|
|
mutuation in a oncogene is
|
permanent
|
|
|
ras gene
|
controls growth at signal transduction
intervenes before it hits cell nucleous 30% of cancer the ras gene does not function only active when growth is off |
|
|
p53 gene
|
p21 protein
directly inhibits onco genes turns off cell cycle turns off growth allows repair of a problem |
|
|
suicide genes
|
apoptosis
programmed death kills disruptive gene and okay genes in cells |
|
|
virus is
|
obligate intracellular parasite
absolute parasite no mutualism |
|
|
a virus is made out of
|
capsid
protein that surround nucleic acid DNA or RNA |
|
|
some viruses have
|
envelope
plasma membrane bilayer taken from host |
|
|
virus are mobile or non motile
|
non motile
|
|
|
viruses can be obtained by means of
|
water born
air borne food borne blood borne fecal-oral vectorborne-carried by organisn contact |
|
|
virus can be killed by
|
oxygen UV light
dry heat |
|
|
purpose of a virus is to
|
reproduce
|
|
|
reproduction of a virus is by
|
lytic or lysogenic
|
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lytic cycle is
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any quickly reproducing virus
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bacteriophage
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virus of a bacteria
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t4 phage
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30-40 genes
makes capsids capsid is all protein tail fibers attach to cell membrane |
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steps of lytic cycle
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adsorption, entry, replication, assembly, exit lysis
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adsorption
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virus sticks to cell membrand
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entry
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contormational change in capsid, pokes hole in cell,
virus is in the DNA inserts into host DNA |
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replication
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hijacking of the cell
uses cells machines to make capsids |
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assmebly
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assembles more t4 phages
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exit
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lysis occurs killing cells, breaks the bacteria
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Lysogenic steps
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adsoption,entry, dormancy, replication, assemble, lysis
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dormancy
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own genes turn off, inserts into DNA
silent provirus |
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Bacteria replicates and divides the prophage a long with own DNa but remains silent
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dormancy
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When stress happens to bacteria what does the virus start doing?
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replication, assemble, lysis
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In lysogenic reproduction, what are the 2 ways for a virus to get out of the cell
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budding and lysis
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budding and lysis can happen in
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lysogenic reproduction
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In animal virus all steps are the same except
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entry
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Animal virus enters by way of
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receptor mediated endocytosis and fusion
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categories of virus
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dsDNA-double stranded DNA
ssDNA-single stranded DNA dsRNA-double stranded RNA ssRNA- mRNA ssRNA-template for mRNA retrovirus |
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retrovirus characteristics
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blood borne
RNA to DNA HIV- slow virus, dies in saliva |
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ssRNA characteristics
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template for mRNA
lytic viruses |
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main ssRNA types
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Rhabdo virus
Paramyxovirus Orthomyxovirus Filovirus |
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Rhabdo virus
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ssRNA
lytic rabies-vector |
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Paramyxovirus
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ssRNA
lytic measles-rash, photophobia mumps-lymph system |
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Orthomyxovirus
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ssRNA
Influenza ABC respiratory passage fever chills aches C-airborne B-most common A-pandemics, H1N1 Hemaglutinin Neuraminadose |
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Filovirus
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ssDNA
most deadly blood borne or contact EBOLA Marburg - hemorrhagic fever bleeding, 5-6 days dead deadly fever |
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ssRNA characteristics
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immediately starts translating
lytic Picornavirus Coronavirus Flavivirus |
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Picornavirus
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ssRNA
lytic rhinovirus- 50 during lifetime, the cold 300 types attack humans |
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Coronavirus
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ssRNA
airborne severe acute respitory viral pneumonia |
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Flavivirus
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ssRNA
west nile-vector yellow fever-vector hepititus C-silent killer blood borne liver cancer Johndus |
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dsRNA
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double stranded
Reovirus |
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Reovirus
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double stranded dsRNA
Rotovirus-diareahhea, fecal oral borne Colorado tick fever, vector borne |
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ssDNA
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single stranded
Parvovirus |
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Parvovirus
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ssDNA
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dsDNA
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double stranded DNA
very stable Adenoviruses Papovirus Herpes Zester Epstein/Barr Poxovirus |
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Poxovirus
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dsDNA very stable
cow pox small pox-anafalactic reaction from vaccine possibl |
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Herpes
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Eptein Barr- Mono-contact
Zester-chicken pox-shingles-lysogenic Herpes-birus simplex 1 & 2 1-cold sores 2-genital lysogenic |
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Papovirus
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dsDNA
HPV Warts contact |
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Adenoviruses
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dsDNA respitory virus
airborne/contact |
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Rcombination
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take a gene from a human and have a mouse express gene
insulin |
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restriction enzymes
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naturally occurring in bacteria
cut DNA into pieces have been harvested cut specific sequences |
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ECOR1
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Ecoli strain 1
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Plasmid then insulin gene sliced, then onther gene is added, then it becomes resistant... what is this?
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recombination
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genomic library
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bacteria and virus
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mRNA reverse transcriptase
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mRNA-DNA-cDNA
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Cannot just put DNA into plasmid without digest
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true
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ladder
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standard
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to digest DNA,
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add restriction enzymes
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Kb
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kilobases
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PCT
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polymerase chain raction
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DNA is targeted and amplified in
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PCR
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Aneealing
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PCR finds gene and then copies millions
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PCR cycle
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Denature, annealing, relpicate
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Denature in PCR
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break hydrogen bonds
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annealing in PCR
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primers attach
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repkicate in PCR
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add a line
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thermocycler
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cyles take 3-4 hours for entire 20 some cycles
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RFLP
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restriction(enzyme) fragments (piece out)length polymorphism(many changes)
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The more RFLP the more
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unique
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RFLP is all about
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identification
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Southern blot
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narrows rflp smears
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Craig ventor
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human genome project
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