Bio Notes For Prof Howard's Third Test

Front 1

endo skeleton

Back 1

internal skeleton

Front 2

tissues

Back 2

tibrous connective tissues (cells embedded in a secreted matrix)

Front 3

ligaments

Back 3

bands of elastic collagen fibers secreted by fiboroblast (living cells) that hold bone to bone

Front 4

cartilage

Back 4

composed of a rubbery amtrix secreted randomly arranged condrocytes. there are no blood vessels or nerves in cartilage

Front 5

cartilage

Back 5

1) forms the embryonic skeleton
2) forms pudding in joints,no set in certilage

Front 6

bone

Back 6

composed of rigid collagen matrix hardened with calcium phosphate. lacunane ( cavities housing living bone cells called osteocytes)occur in concentic rings around haversian canals containing blood vessels +nerves

Front 7

other bone characteristics

Back 7

bones is constantlybeing digested by osteoclasts and replaced by osteoblasts to maintain maxium strentgh + minimum weight , and to release calcium + phosphate reserve+ enclosing a bone in in a cast for a few weeks can reduce its size + strebgth by 30%

Front 8

compact bone

Back 8

forms solid tube for support, protection, mineral reserves

Front 9

cancellous bone

Back 9

spongy bone filled with red bone marrow (contains unspecialized stem cells capable of foaming all kinds of blood cells)

Front 10

medulary cavity

Back 10

space filled with yellow bone marrow (contains adipose tissue- fat cells)

Front 11

periosteam

Back 11

outer layer of connective tissue continuous with ligaments + tendons that helps repair bone

Front 12

fracture

Back 12

break in bone

Front 13

osteoporosis

Back 13

loss of calicum + bone mass with aging, common with women over 40, heredity, low calcium intake, reduced destrogen levels, + decreased physical activity

Front 14

skeletal systems

Back 14

consists of 206 bones in humans

Front 15

axial skeleton

Back 15

specialized for protection + support

Front 16

cranium

Back 16

brain case

Front 17

facial bones

Back 17

1) maxilla upper jaw
2) mandible - movable layer jaw

Front 18

vertebral column

Back 18

33 vertebrae seperated by intervertebral disks

Front 19

cartilage padding

Back 19

this provides the main body support + encloses the spinal cord

Front 20

ribcage

Back 20

12 pairs of ribs that protect te chest cavity + aid in breathing

Front 21

sternum

Back 21

breast bone to wich the ribs attach by cartilage (major blood producing bone)

Front 22

appendicilar skeleton

Back 22

specialized for movement

Front 23

pectoral gridle

Back 23

2 pair of shoulder bone

Front 24

scapulae

Back 24

shoulder blade to which the arm attaches

Front 25

clavicle

Back 25

collar bone

Front 26

arm bones

Back 26

30 pairs of arm + hand bones.

Front 27

humerus

Back 27

upper arm bone

Front 28

radius

Back 28

lower arm bone on thumb side

Front 29

ulna

Back 29

lower arm bone on little finger side

Front 30

carpal

Back 30

8 wrist bones

Front 31

metcarpals

Back 31

5 hand bones

Front 32

phalanges

Back 32

4 finger bones

Front 33

pelvic girdle

Back 33

3 pair of hip bones that support + protect the abdominal organs

Front 34

leg bones

Back 34

30 pairs of leg + foot bones

Front 35

femer

Back 35

upper leg bone

Front 36

patella

Back 36

knee cap

Front 37

tibia

Back 37

big leg bone on little toe side

Front 38

metatarsals

Back 38

5 foot bones

Front 39

phalanges

Back 39

14 toe bone

Front 40

joints

Back 40

occur where 2 bones meet

Front 41

fibrous joints

Back 41

have no joint cavity + allow no movement

Front 42

cartilaginous joints

Back 42

have small joint cavities filled with cartilage + allow limited movement

Front 43

ligaments

Back 43

hold bone together

Front 44

symovial joints

Back 44

have fluid - filled cavities that allow free movement ball+socket, hinge, pivot joints

Front 45

cartilage

Back 45

provides padding at ends of bones

Front 46

symovial membrane

Back 46

enclosed joint + secretes symovial fluid (lubricant) into the joint

Front 47

bursal

Back 47

bags of symovial fluid that help reduce friction where ligaments, tendons, ligaments or skin rub against bones

Front 48

sprain

Back 48

tear a ligament

Front 49

arthritis

Back 49

aching + inflamed joints

Front 50

osteoarthritis

Back 50

loss of cartilages padding with aging (common after 40)

Front 51

rheumatoid arthritis

Back 51

autoimmune disease (where the body attacks itself that causes bone deformities in joints. it occurs in 1/30 people between 30-40 years old, is twice as common in women + may be triggered by an infection or stress

Front 52

gout

Back 52

collection of uric acid (solid metabolic waste) in the symovial fluid (often associated with high protein diets + use of alcohol)

Front 53

rheumatoid arthritis

Back 53

autoimmune disease that caauses bone deformities in joints. it occurs in 1/30 people between 30-40 years old, is twice as common in women+ may be triggered by an infection or stress

Front 54

gout

Back 54

collection of uric acid (solid metabolic waste) in the symovial fluid (often associated with high protein diets + use of alcohol

Front 55

bursitis

Back 55

inflammation of bursal

Front 56

tendons

Back 56

bands of elastic collagen fibers secreted by fiborblasts that attach muscles to bones (cannot contract)

Front 57

muscles

Back 57

groups of muscles fibers cells containing contractive protein,able to contract. muscles only pull, so they must be grouped into antagonistic pairs

Front 58

skeletal muscles

Back 58

50 muscle for body movement (40% of body weight in males but only 23% in females) they are under voluntary control, contract quickly + tire easly

Front 59

what skeletal muscles consists of

Back 59

a group of long multi nucleate cells called striated muscle fibers wrapped by fascia. (connective tissue) the number of fibers (cells) per muscle is set in embryo stage + can never increase

Front 60

straited muscles fibers

Back 60

contain hundreds of contractile strands called myofibrils, which are divided lengthwise into sacromeres. a muscle fibers contracts when the sarcomeres shorten.

Front 61

sacromeres

Back 61

bands of actin + myosin

Front 62

motor neuron (nerve cell)

Back 62

connects to lolmore striated muscle fibers forming motor unit. nerve impulse, ATP for energy + calcium Ions are required for a contraction to occur. Immediate ATP energy for about 8 seconds come from stored creatine phosphate

Front 63

muscle containts

Back 63

contains reserves of glycogen = fat for fuel, and myoglobin stores oxygen for aerobic respiration. when oxygen dept. occurs, lactate fermentation can provide energy for up to 2-3 minutes before lactate build up causes muscle fatigue + cramping

Front 64

more info on muscles

Back 64

each striated muscle fiber it is anall or nothing response. the strength of the contraction depends on how many motor units you fire at once, 4 how many mayofibrils they are per cell. motor units require 0.05 seconds to fire, relax + be ready to fire again

Front 65

more info on muscles

Back 65

muscles that are used often develop good muscle tone. they react more quickly (because some fibers, have more mitochondria + myofrils per cell, have better circulation. unused muscle fibers die + are replaced by connective + adipose tissue

Front 66

tetanus

Back 66

caused byan anaerobic bacteria in dirt that produces toxins in closed wounds. it results in paralysis from continuously contracted muscles +is 50% fatal without vaccination

Front 67

muscular dystrophy

Back 67

hereditary loss of muscles with replacement by adipose tissue. most cases occur in 3-15 years old males + death usually occurs by age 20

Front 68

smooth muscles

Back 68

sheets of muscle around internal organs that are under involuntary control that have a slow, rhythmic rate of action. these muscles are long slender, uninucleate that interconnect at gap junctions( so that contractions can pass directly from one cell to the next)

Front 69

uninucleate

Back 69

muscles without striations

Front 70

cardiac muscles

Back 70

they form the heart, are under involuntary control + have a variable rate of action. cardiac muscle fibers are long, uninucleate, finely striated branch cells that interconnect ate plate called intercalated disks

Front 71

more info on cardiac muscles

Back 71

they do NOT require nerve impulses to contract although nerves + hormones control the rate of contraction. the pacemaker (part of the right atrium of the heart) initiates a constant heart beat

Front 72

integumentary system

Back 72

outer body covering 5% of body weight

Front 73

epidermis

Back 73

thin outer layer straitified squamous epithelium (layers of pancaked shaped cell)

Front 74

stratum corheum

Back 74

outer protection layer of dead cells, filled with Keratin + melatin

Front 75

Keratin

Back 75

tough waterproof protein

Front 76

melatin

Back 76

black pigment that protects us from ultraviolet radiation

Front 77

stratium basale

Back 77

inner living layer that produces
a)mostly keratincrytes
b)malanocytes
c)vitamin D
d)all skin outgrowths

Front 78

dermis

Back 78

thick laer of areolan connective tissue containing collagen fibers. skin outgrowths, blood vessels, nerves+ sensory receptors for heart, cold, pressure +pain occur here. blood vessels help control body temp. by dilating to release heat + constricting to conserve heat

Front 79

hypodermis (subcutaneous layer)

Back 79

layer o f adipose tissue that stores fat + provide insulation. it thickens on the abdomen, the seat + breast. unused adipose cells do not die but wait for more fat deposits.

Front 80

blisters

Back 80

build up of body fluid between skin layer

Front 81

bruise

Back 81

broken blood vessels in dermis

Front 82

burns

Back 82

classified to depth
a)first degree- damages epidermis causing shedding of the stratum
b)second degree - damages epidermis + dermis causing blisters
c)third degree- damages extreme hypodermis + healing requires scar tissue

Front 83

skin cancer

Back 83

ulcer, usually moles or add - colored patches of skin caused by ultraviolet radiation.

Front 84

neuroglial cells

Back 84

shelter cells that insulate, protect+ fed neurons. some form coatin around axons + dendrites called mylin sheathes-

Front 85

sensory neurons

Back 85

connect sensory receptors to inter neurons. they have long dendrites, short axon +have neurilemmas

Front 86

motor neurons

Back 86

connect interneurons to affectors (muscle + glands). they have short dendrites, long axons+neurilemmas

Front 87

interneurons

Back 87

compose the brain + spinal cord

Front 88

white matter

Back 88

carries messages within the brain + spinal cord. they have short dendrites, long axon, mylin sheaths

Front 89

gray matter

Back 89

make decisions,these have short dendrites, short axons + no mylin sheaths

Front 90

info on neurons

Back 90

all the neurons you will ever have were produced in the embryo stage. under normal conditions 5,000 nerve cells die each day + are never replaced

Front 91

multiple selerosis

Back 91

autoimmune disease of young adults (20-40 years old) that destroys the mylin sheaths on the white matter causing loss of cordination

Front 92

nerve impulses

Back 92

travels 1 direction, down a neuron. the impulse is carried as a current caused by the movement of sodium + potassium in + out the membrane through carrier proteins

Front 93

more info on nerve impulses

Back 93

when a mylin sheaths is present, the impulses skips from one nods of ravien to another increasing the speeds to 200m/ second

Front 94

more info on nerve impulses

Back 94

to stimulate a neuron an acticn must exceed a thresold level . once started the impulses travel all the way to the end of the neuron. lost neorons do not interconnect. a thin gap called the synapse seprates the axon of 1 neuron from the dendrites of the next bridging this gap is the slowest part of nerve transmission.

Front 95

synaptick nobs

Back 95

produce vesciles filled with nurotransmitters( chemical message). nerve impulses, ATP,+calcium Ions cause exocytosis (releasing the contents of the vesicles)

Front 96

neurotransmitters

Back 96

diffuse across the synapse + attach to receptors proteins on the next dendrite. the message is sent on + the neurotransmitters is destroyed . there are 25 different neurons, but the most common is acetylcholin. an enzyme called cholinesterase destroys it within 0.002 seconds

Front 97

neuromodulation

Back 97

block or enhance neurotranmitters

Front 98

central nervous system

Back 98

consists of interneurons within the brain + spinal cord + cannot be reparied. it is protested by 3 layers of connective tissue called the menings + a blood brain barrier around the blood vessels(allows gluclose, selected ions, O2 + CO2 to pass but restricts most other compounds, except for lipid soluble substances like caffine, nicotine, nicotine, alcohol, anetherics, barbituates + heroin)

Front 99

the brain

Back 99

floats in cerebro spinal fluid, which provide nutrients, removes wastes + cushions the neurons. the fluid is replaced everyday

Front 100

menigitis

Back 100

infection of the meninges causing a bad headache, stiff neck, fever + nausea. it is very dangerous + 90% fatal

Front 101

spinal cord

Back 101

dorsal nerve cord enclosed by the vertabral column

Front 102

central canal

Back 102

filled with cerebral spinal fluid

Front 103

inner gray matter

Back 103

controls spinal reflexes

Front 104

outer white matter

Back 104

carries massages to + from the brain

Front 105

the brain

Back 105

controls center composed of 1 billion neurons

Front 106

inner white matter

Back 106

relay messages

Front 107

outer gray matter

Back 107

make decisions

Front 108

hind brain

Back 108

oldest part, evolutionarily, the first part to be functional fetus. it controls many involuntary functions

Front 109

brainstem

Back 109

relay center between the brain + spinal cord

Front 110

mendull called the reticular activating system a ablongata

Back 110

controls heart rate, blood pressure, breathing, swallowing, vomiting, coughing + sneezing

Front 111

pons

Back 111

help control coordination

Front 112

reticular formation

Back 112

central core of the brainstem, connecting the spinal cord through the midbrain to the thalamus. it controls consciousness by censoring incoming messages. a part called the reticular activating system keeps you awake. it is inhibited by a compound called serotin

Front 113

coma

Back 113

caused by damage to the reticular formation

Front 114

cerebellium

Back 114

involuntary control over skeletal muscles for balance, posture, coordination + muscle tone.

Front 115

mid brain

Back 115

continuation of brainstem

Front 116

mid brain for fish + amphibians

Back 116

reflex center for sight + sound

Front 117

mid brain for reptiles, bird + mammals

Back 117

minor relay center

Front 118

forebrain

Back 118

most recently envolved part of the brain, best develop

Front 119

hypothalamus

Back 119

controlos body temp, water balance, salt balance, thirst, hunger + sleep. a minimum of 6-8 hours of sleep is required for proper body maintenance + growth, as well as storage of long term memory. it also coordinates the endoctrine system + is part of the limbic system

Front 120

thalamus

Back 120

post office that sorts out + directs up to 100 million + motor impulses per second between the reticular formation + cerebral cortex

Front 121

corpus callosum

Back 121

consists of 250 million white matter neurons connecting the ---- hemisphere of the cerebral cortex

Front 122

cebral cortex

Back 122

large wrinkle + folded outer layer of over billion gray matter neurons. it is divided into a a right + left hemispere

Front 123

frontal lobe

Back 123

behind the forehead

Front 124

preffoted area

Back 124

controls intelligence, reason,motivation, short term memory + the limbic system. it begins rapid around 9-10 years old where as around age 12,---- is not completed until age 20

Front 125

premotor cortex

Back 125

controls intricate + sequental muscle movements

Front 126

motor cortex

Back 126

controls voluntary muscle movements

Front 127

olfactory cortex

Back 127

controls smell, 80-90% of taste in adults

Front 128

parietal lobe

Back 128

upper back part

Front 129

somate sensory cortex

Back 129

works with skin receptors + skelatal muscles

Front 130

somatic association cortex

Back 130

controls recognition of object based on the best texture (without sight)

Front 131

primary taste area

Back 131

controls taste

Front 132

wernickes area

Back 132

sensory speach area for understanding written + spoken words (left side)

Front 133

occipital lobe

Back 133

lower back part

Front 134

visual cortex

Back 134

controls sight

Front 135

visual association cortex

Back 135

controls recognition of visual information

Front 136

tempral lobe

Back 136

side of head

Front 137

auditory cortex

Back 137

controls hearing

Front 138

auditory association cortex

Back 138

controls recognition of seconds

Front 139

limbic system

Back 139

composed of parts of the cerebral cortex, the amygdala (controls fight or flight) hippocampusn(stores long term memory), thalamus + hypothalamus. it controls emotions (pain, joy, sadness, rage, fear) + converts short term memory into long term memory

Front 140

headaches

Back 140

caused by muscles tension in head + neck or sinus infections

Front 141

stroke

Back 141

sudden death of brain cells caused by lack of blood flow to part of the brain. are more common in men over 65 with high blood pressure. they often follow ministrokes called TIA'S

Front 142

dyslexia

Back 142

learning disabilities including errors in right - left (ordering, language skills, spelling, comprehension, motivation + attention spain) resulting from minor brain damage. it is 3 times more common in males + can be caused by hallucinogenic drugs or a mother smoking or drinking alcohol during pregnancy

Front 143

Alzheimer's disease

Back 143

loss of memory, reason, voluntary functions over a 3-10 year span caused by progressive death of neurons in the cerebral cortex (starts in hippocampus)

Front 144

proprioceptor

Back 144

mechanoreceptors within the skeletal muscles that sense body movements + lung inflation

Front 145

cutaneous receptors

Back 145

located in the dermis of the skin + work with the somato sensory cortex

Front 146

nociceptors

Back 146

pain receptors that detect tissue damage

Front 147

mechanoreceptors

Back 147

record pressure

Front 148

thermoreceptors

Back 148

record hot + cold + work with the hypothalamus

Front 149

chemoreceptors

Back 149

detect chemical shapes

Front 150

taste receptors

Back 150

located in 10,000 taste buds on the tongue

Front 151

scent receptors

Back 151

located in the nasal cavity + work with the olfactory cortex

Front 152

blood PH receptors

Back 152

located in the carotidanteries +aorta + work with the medalla ablongola to control blood PH

Front 153

eye sense orga with photorecptors

Back 153

for vision that wrk's with the visual cortex

Front 154

seleotic coat

Back 154

outer protective layer of connective tissue

Front 155

selera

Back 155

white of the eye

Front 156

cornea

Back 156

clear bulge of the eye

Front 157

chorid

Back 157

pigment layer

Front 158

lens

Back 158

clear protein disk that focus images on the retina by changing shape

Front 159

retina

Back 159

unnermost layer layer containing photoreceptors connected to the optic nerve

Front 160

rods

Back 160

provide black + white vision in dim light. they occur throughout the retina except in the fovea just behind the lens. all vertebrae have rods

Front 161

cones

Back 161

provide color vision in bight light. most are concentrated directly behind the lens. about 25% of vertebrae have them

Front 162

blind spot

Back 162

area with no photoreceptors where the optic nerve attaches

Front 163

vitreous humor

Back 163

jelly fill in to maintain shape

Front 164

agueous humor

Back 164

fluid behind the cornea

Front 165

cataracts

Back 165

lens cloudy due to aging, being overweight, having diabetes exposure to UV radiation or being a heavy smoker

Front 166

myopia

Back 166

near sighted, elongated eyeballs

Front 167

hyperopia

Back 167

far sighted short eyeballs

Front 168

colorblindness

Back 168

hereditary problem, more common in males where cones lack pigments to detect red, green, and or blue light