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152 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
Heredity
the transmission of traits from one generation to the next
Variation
differences in genes, good for natural selection
Genetics
The branch of biology that deals with heredity, especially the mechanisms of hereditary transmission and the variation of inherited characteristics among similar or related organis
Gene
A hereditary unit consisting of a sequence of DNA that occupies a specific location on a chromosome and determines a particular characteristic in an organism. Genes undergo mutation when their DNA sequence changes.
Asexual reproduction
One parent!
no fertilization
Plants and fungi
Mitosis
clone
a group of genetically identical individuals produced by asexual reproduction
sexual reproduction
Two Parents, genetic material form two organisms
Meiosis, produce gametes for fertilization
then mitosis
life cycle
a period of time involing all different generations of a species succeeding each other through means of reproduction
You're born, you reproduce you die
somatic cells
a diploid cell. (2n) forming any biological cell in an organism, that is not for reproduction
syngamy
The fusion of gametes which produces a zygote (2n).
autosomes
any chromosome not considered as a sex chromosome, or not involved in sex determination. (22 sets of chromosomes)
haploid cells
A cell that contains one complete set of chromosomes. Gametes (n) = 23
diploid cells
a cell that contains two sets of chromosomes. One from each parent. (2n) 46 chromosomes.
fertilization
the process in sexual reproduction that involves the union of male and females gametes to produce a diploid zygote
homologous chromosomes
chromosome pairs of the same length, that have genes for the same characteristics at correspond loci.
zygote
a cell in diploid state following fertilization
synapsis
homologous chromosomes pairing, in the prophase of meiosis
tetrad
a group of four closely addociated chromatids of homologous chromosomes, paired by synapsis
chiasma
The point of contact between the paired chromatids which result in a cross shaped configuration
chiasmata
The point of contact between the paired chromatids which result in a cross shaped configuration
Crossing Over
Contributes to variation in traits among off spring, happens in prophase
Random Segregation
contribute to variation in traits among off spring, Anaphase, when homologues separate
Basis of sexual reproduction
meiosis
dominates the life cycle of nearly all animals
Sexual reproduction
contribute to variation in traits among offspring
Crossing over, random segregation and random fertilization
DNA replication
occurs in interphase prior to meiosis
DOES NOT HAPPEN BETWEEN MEIOSIS I AND MEIOSIS II
Mitosis Vs. Meiosis

Daughter cells
Identical?
Haploid or Diploid?
Mitosis: 2 daughter cells, identical, diploid 2n (46 chromosomes)

Meiosis: 4 daughter cells, not identical at all, haploid (23 chromosomes) sex cells
True Breeding
produce offspring consistently identical to the parent with respect to certain defined characters after generations
Monohybrid cross
cross between two individuals that are homozygous for different versions of a trait (AA and aa)
Dihybrid cross
Cross result in 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio (SSYY and ssyy)
Alleles
one of alternative forms of a particular gene
Dominant allele
allele that expresses itself
Recessive allele
an allele that is masked
Homozygous
carrys two copies of the same allele (AA)
Heterozygous
carries two different alleles of a given gene (Aa)
Phenotype
the outward appearance of expression of an organism
Genotype
an organism's allelic (genetic) makeup
Law of segregation
Each gamete recieves only one of each parent's pair of genes for each trait. Whena sperm fertilizes an eff, the resulting offspring receives one allele from the father and one from the mother
Law of independent assortment
The alleles for one trait may be distributed to the gametes independently of the alleles for the other traits
Incomplete dominance
heterozygous phenotype is intermediate between the two parents (a pink flower)
Codominance
Human blood types. A, B, AB, or O.. AB = co-dominance
Polygenic inheritance
when alleles at more than one locus contribute to the same trait (skin color and height)
pleiotropy
one gene has multiple phenotypic effects
carrier
They have the gene for it but necessarily active
cystic fibrosis
4% of whites are carrier. most common lethal genetic disease in US. RECESSIVE DISEASE!
sickle-cell disease
RECESSIVE DISEASE, amino acid changes in hemoglobin, block capillary vessels. 45% African population
achondroplasia
Autosomal Dominant inheritance. dwarfism! AA die, Aa dwarf aa normal
huntington disorder
Autosomal dominant inheritance, carrier until 35-45
Sex-linkage
Diseases linked to X-Y genes. usually skip gereations
Hemophilia
sex-linked disease in which blood does not clot normally. recessively inherited, carried on X chromosome
Aneuploidy
an abnormality involving a chromosome number that is not an exact multiple of the haploid number.
Barr Body
every "extra" X produces a Barr body in the nucleus
Trisomy
XXX
2n=47
2 barbodies
female
Polyploidy
an abnormality involving a chromosome number that is not an exact multiple of the haploid number.
Down Syndrome
3 copies of chromosome #21 2n=47
Change in autosomes #
Klinfelter syndrome
XXY
2n=47
Male
1 Bar bodie
Turner syndrome
X
2n=45
Female
Height!
Speck syndrome
XYY
Super male
2n=47
Male
Home many homologous chromosomes does each person have
23 pairs
46 chromosome
Female:
Male:
XX
XY
Genetic abnormalities or disorders are caused by
changes in chromosomes, and autosomes
Sex Determination
Grasshopper
Birds
Bees
x-0- males no sex chromosomes just X

Z-W, sex determination by eggs: Males ZZ, females, Female: ZW

Bees: Males Haploid
Females Diploid
Population genetics
Individuals of a population have the same number and kinds of genes, but if may exist in different forms
population
a localized group of individuals that are capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring
gene pool
pool of genetic resources that, in theory, is shared by all members of the population
Hardy Weignberg Theorem
the frequences of alleles in the gene pool will remain constant unless acted by other agents.
Not evolving means:
No mutation,Large population, isolated from other populations, there is no selection, random mating.
Microevolution
changes have occurred in a populations allele frequencies
Gene Flow
emigration and immigration of individuals
Genetic drift
changes in the gene pool of a small population due to change
Polymorphism
traits come in two or more distinct forms
Natural selection
causes changes in gene frequencies of a population

Does not cause genetic changes in individuals
begalls individuals, but evolution occurs in populations
Only natural selection generally leads to an accumulation of favorable adaptation in a population
Bottleneck effect
A sudden change in the environment may drastically reduce the size of a population

The gene pool may no longer be reflective of the original population's gene pool.
Stabilizing selection
intermediate forms are favored and extremes are eliminated
Directional selection
shift in allele frequency in a consistent direction
disruptive selection
both forms at extreme ends are favored and intermediate forms are eliminated
Allele frequencies can change through...
mutations, gene flow, genetic drift, nonrandom mating, and natural selection
5 causes of microevolution
mutations
Gene flow (emigration and immigration)
Genetic Drift (change in gene pool)
nonrandom mating
natural selection
Descent with modification
Evolution and natural selection
Artificial selection
selective breeding, humans modified other species
homology
similarities resulting from common ancestry
Vestigial organs
remnants of structures that served important functions in the organism's ancestors
Speciation
process by which daughter species evolve from a parent species
Biological Species
Biological species are the same if they can breed
Prezygotic reproductive barriers
Habitat isolation: Don't live in the same place
Temporal Isolation: different mating seasons
Behavioral isolation: There love songs don't match up
Mechanical Isolation: structure mismatch
Gametic: gamete incompatibilty, egg not fertilized
Postzygotic reproductive barriers
Reduce hybrid viability: Hybrid embryo forms, but is not viable

Reduce hybrid fertility: Hybrid is viable, but the resulting adult is sterile

Hybrid breakdown: First generation (F1) hybrids are viable and fertile, but further hybrid generations (F2 and backcrosses) are inviable or sterile.
Allopatric speciation
speciation in geographically isolated populations, different barriers
sympatric speciation
Geographically overlapping
Polyploidization
Is the presence of extra sets of chromosomes in
cells due to accidents during cell division
adaptive radiation
The diversification of a group of organisms into forms filling different ecological niches
autopolyploid
Is an individual that has more than two chromosome sets, all derived from a single
species
Binomial
Naming of species, with two names: Genus (first letter cap) and species not cap. must be italicized or underlined
Clade
a grouping that includes a common ancestor and all the descendents of that ancestor
Class
3 largest level
Classification
the arrangement of organisms by their physical similarities, which reflect historical and evolutionary relationships
Domain
highest level: 3 domains Archea, Bacteria and Eukarya
Systematic
field of biology that deals with the diversity of life
kingdom
6 kingdoms: Archaebacteria, eubacteria, protista, fungi, plantae, animalia
Taxonomy
the science of describing, naming, and classifying organisms
phylogeny
the evolutionary history of species or group of related species
Ingestion
The process of ingesting/eating foood
Biliateral symmetry
animals can be divided into mirror images by a single plane
asymmetry
animals that have no plane of symmetry
deuterostomes
the blastopore gives rise to the anus
radial symmetry
Cnidarians, one main axis around which its body parts are arranged.
protoostomes
the mouth gives arise from the blastopore
body plan
the entire structure of an animal, its organ systems, and the integrated functioning of its parts
Dorsal
Top side
ventral
The bottom side
blastopore
the opening of the cavity that forms in the spherical embryo
Animal characteristics
Multicellular eukaryotes, cells lack cell walls, hetrotroph which means they ingest food, breathe oxygen, most reproduce sexually, have a life cycle. Nervous tissue and muscle tissue which is unique to animals
3 levels of organization of animal cells
tissue, organs, and organ systems
Tissue
there are 4 types of tissue
A group of cells, usually similar in both structure and function. they are bound together to carry out one or more specialized task
Epithelial tissue
protective coverings of the body, linings of internal organs. act as a barrier
connective tissue
structural support of body parts, energy storage
Cells separated by matrix

Tendonds, ligament cartilage, bone, adipose tissue and blood.
muscle tissue
movement of body parts and internal organs. # types, skeletal, smooth and cardiac
skeletal muscle
cells very long voluntary control
smooth muscle
line internal organs, involuntary control (lungs)
cardiac muscle
only in heart, involuntary
nervous tissue
Regulation of body activities by receiving and sending electric signals.
Homeostasis
moderate changes in the internal environment
body temperature
blood ph
blood pressure
depends on negative and positive feedback loops
organs
a body part. two or more tissue types that function together
organ systems
two or more organs that work to perform a common function
bone
connective tissue
cartilage
connective tissue
ligaments
connective tissue
tendons
connective tissue
adipose
connective tissue
neuron
nerves tissue
basal metabloic rate BMR vs. Standard metabloic rate SMR
endotherm

ectotherm
undernourished
diet is deficient in calories
sources of nutrients for growth and metabolism
protein, minerals, vitamins, lipids
Disgestion
the breakdown of food into moecules that can be absorbed by the body cells
essential amino acids
8 of them
Tryptophan
methionine
valine
thhreonine
phenylalnine
leucine
isoleucine
lysine
(histidine)
Tasks involved in complete disgestive systems
mechanical processing and motility, secretion of enzymes, digestion, aborption, elmination
salivary gland
digests starch, by producing saliva
alimentary cavity
complete disgestive tracts, in earthworm and grasshopper
pancreas
accessory organ in the digestive system, that release disgestive enzymes, into small intestine. Source of alkaline fluid.
acid chyme
a nutrient broth, gastic fluid in the stomach
Gallbladder
accessory organ in digestive system, stores concentrate bile from liver
pharynx (digestive)
passage way
esophagus (digestive)
moves food to stomach
stomach (digestive)
mix food and storage,
protein disgestion pepsin
Controls pass of food, breaks down large good
Gastric fluid kill bacteria and destroy extracellular matrix that bind cells
pepsin
an enzyme that digests protein
small intestine
major digestive region, 6 meters long digestion and absorption.
large intestine
reabsorbs 90% water, minerals reabsorbed into blood, waste elimination,
duodenum
the lining of small intestine. first 25 cm
villi
densely folded
microvilli
further folded billi, to increase surface are for absorption
liver (digestion)
secretes bile for fat absorption
Starch digestin starts?
Protein?
Mouth
Stomach
Arteries vs Veins
Art: away
Veins: to
Bone marrow
young: red
old:yellow