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152 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Heredity
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the transmission of traits from one generation to the next
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Variation
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differences in genes, good for natural selection
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Genetics
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The branch of biology that deals with heredity, especially the mechanisms of hereditary transmission and the variation of inherited characteristics among similar or related organis
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Gene
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A hereditary unit consisting of a sequence of DNA that occupies a specific location on a chromosome and determines a particular characteristic in an organism. Genes undergo mutation when their DNA sequence changes.
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Asexual reproduction
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One parent!
no fertilization Plants and fungi Mitosis |
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clone
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a group of genetically identical individuals produced by asexual reproduction
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sexual reproduction
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Two Parents, genetic material form two organisms
Meiosis, produce gametes for fertilization then mitosis |
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life cycle
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a period of time involing all different generations of a species succeeding each other through means of reproduction
You're born, you reproduce you die |
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somatic cells
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a diploid cell. (2n) forming any biological cell in an organism, that is not for reproduction
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syngamy
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The fusion of gametes which produces a zygote (2n).
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autosomes
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any chromosome not considered as a sex chromosome, or not involved in sex determination. (22 sets of chromosomes)
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haploid cells
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A cell that contains one complete set of chromosomes. Gametes (n) = 23
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diploid cells
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a cell that contains two sets of chromosomes. One from each parent. (2n) 46 chromosomes.
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fertilization
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the process in sexual reproduction that involves the union of male and females gametes to produce a diploid zygote
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homologous chromosomes
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chromosome pairs of the same length, that have genes for the same characteristics at correspond loci.
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zygote
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a cell in diploid state following fertilization
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synapsis
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homologous chromosomes pairing, in the prophase of meiosis
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tetrad
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a group of four closely addociated chromatids of homologous chromosomes, paired by synapsis
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chiasma
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The point of contact between the paired chromatids which result in a cross shaped configuration
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chiasmata
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The point of contact between the paired chromatids which result in a cross shaped configuration
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Crossing Over
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Contributes to variation in traits among off spring, happens in prophase
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Random Segregation
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contribute to variation in traits among off spring, Anaphase, when homologues separate
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Basis of sexual reproduction
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meiosis
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dominates the life cycle of nearly all animals
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Sexual reproduction
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contribute to variation in traits among offspring
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Crossing over, random segregation and random fertilization
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DNA replication
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occurs in interphase prior to meiosis
DOES NOT HAPPEN BETWEEN MEIOSIS I AND MEIOSIS II |
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Mitosis Vs. Meiosis
Daughter cells Identical? Haploid or Diploid? |
Mitosis: 2 daughter cells, identical, diploid 2n (46 chromosomes)
Meiosis: 4 daughter cells, not identical at all, haploid (23 chromosomes) sex cells |
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True Breeding
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produce offspring consistently identical to the parent with respect to certain defined characters after generations
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Monohybrid cross
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cross between two individuals that are homozygous for different versions of a trait (AA and aa)
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Dihybrid cross
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Cross result in 9:3:3:1 phenotypic ratio (SSYY and ssyy)
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Alleles
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one of alternative forms of a particular gene
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Dominant allele
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allele that expresses itself
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Recessive allele
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an allele that is masked
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Homozygous
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carrys two copies of the same allele (AA)
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Heterozygous
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carries two different alleles of a given gene (Aa)
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Phenotype
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the outward appearance of expression of an organism
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Genotype
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an organism's allelic (genetic) makeup
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Law of segregation
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Each gamete recieves only one of each parent's pair of genes for each trait. Whena sperm fertilizes an eff, the resulting offspring receives one allele from the father and one from the mother
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Law of independent assortment
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The alleles for one trait may be distributed to the gametes independently of the alleles for the other traits
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Incomplete dominance
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heterozygous phenotype is intermediate between the two parents (a pink flower)
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Codominance
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Human blood types. A, B, AB, or O.. AB = co-dominance
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Polygenic inheritance
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when alleles at more than one locus contribute to the same trait (skin color and height)
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pleiotropy
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one gene has multiple phenotypic effects
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carrier
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They have the gene for it but necessarily active
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cystic fibrosis
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4% of whites are carrier. most common lethal genetic disease in US. RECESSIVE DISEASE!
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sickle-cell disease
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RECESSIVE DISEASE, amino acid changes in hemoglobin, block capillary vessels. 45% African population
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achondroplasia
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Autosomal Dominant inheritance. dwarfism! AA die, Aa dwarf aa normal
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huntington disorder
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Autosomal dominant inheritance, carrier until 35-45
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Sex-linkage
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Diseases linked to X-Y genes. usually skip gereations
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Hemophilia
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sex-linked disease in which blood does not clot normally. recessively inherited, carried on X chromosome
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Aneuploidy
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an abnormality involving a chromosome number that is not an exact multiple of the haploid number.
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Barr Body
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every "extra" X produces a Barr body in the nucleus
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Trisomy
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XXX
2n=47 2 barbodies female |
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Polyploidy
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an abnormality involving a chromosome number that is not an exact multiple of the haploid number.
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Down Syndrome
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3 copies of chromosome #21 2n=47
Change in autosomes # |
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Klinfelter syndrome
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XXY
2n=47 Male 1 Bar bodie |
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Turner syndrome
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X
2n=45 Female Height! |
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Speck syndrome
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XYY
Super male 2n=47 Male |
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Home many homologous chromosomes does each person have
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23 pairs
46 chromosome |
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Female:
Male: |
XX
XY |
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Genetic abnormalities or disorders are caused by
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changes in chromosomes, and autosomes
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Sex Determination
Grasshopper Birds Bees |
x-0- males no sex chromosomes just X
Z-W, sex determination by eggs: Males ZZ, females, Female: ZW Bees: Males Haploid Females Diploid |
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Population genetics
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Individuals of a population have the same number and kinds of genes, but if may exist in different forms
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population
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a localized group of individuals that are capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring
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gene pool
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pool of genetic resources that, in theory, is shared by all members of the population
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Hardy Weignberg Theorem
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the frequences of alleles in the gene pool will remain constant unless acted by other agents.
Not evolving means: No mutation,Large population, isolated from other populations, there is no selection, random mating. |
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Microevolution
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changes have occurred in a populations allele frequencies
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Gene Flow
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emigration and immigration of individuals
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Genetic drift
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changes in the gene pool of a small population due to change
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Polymorphism
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traits come in two or more distinct forms
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Natural selection
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causes changes in gene frequencies of a population
Does not cause genetic changes in individuals begalls individuals, but evolution occurs in populations Only natural selection generally leads to an accumulation of favorable adaptation in a population |
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Bottleneck effect
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A sudden change in the environment may drastically reduce the size of a population
The gene pool may no longer be reflective of the original population's gene pool. |
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Stabilizing selection
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intermediate forms are favored and extremes are eliminated
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Directional selection
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shift in allele frequency in a consistent direction
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disruptive selection
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both forms at extreme ends are favored and intermediate forms are eliminated
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Allele frequencies can change through...
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mutations, gene flow, genetic drift, nonrandom mating, and natural selection
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5 causes of microevolution
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mutations
Gene flow (emigration and immigration) Genetic Drift (change in gene pool) nonrandom mating natural selection |
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Descent with modification
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Evolution and natural selection
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Artificial selection
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selective breeding, humans modified other species
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homology
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similarities resulting from common ancestry
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Vestigial organs
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remnants of structures that served important functions in the organism's ancestors
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Speciation
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process by which daughter species evolve from a parent species
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Biological Species
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Biological species are the same if they can breed
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Prezygotic reproductive barriers
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Habitat isolation: Don't live in the same place
Temporal Isolation: different mating seasons Behavioral isolation: There love songs don't match up Mechanical Isolation: structure mismatch Gametic: gamete incompatibilty, egg not fertilized |
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Postzygotic reproductive barriers
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Reduce hybrid viability: Hybrid embryo forms, but is not viable
Reduce hybrid fertility: Hybrid is viable, but the resulting adult is sterile Hybrid breakdown: First generation (F1) hybrids are viable and fertile, but further hybrid generations (F2 and backcrosses) are inviable or sterile. |
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Allopatric speciation
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speciation in geographically isolated populations, different barriers
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sympatric speciation
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Geographically overlapping
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Polyploidization
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Is the presence of extra sets of chromosomes in
cells due to accidents during cell division |
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adaptive radiation
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The diversification of a group of organisms into forms filling different ecological niches
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autopolyploid
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Is an individual that has more than two chromosome sets, all derived from a single
species |
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Binomial
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Naming of species, with two names: Genus (first letter cap) and species not cap. must be italicized or underlined
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Clade
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a grouping that includes a common ancestor and all the descendents of that ancestor
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Class
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3 largest level
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Classification
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the arrangement of organisms by their physical similarities, which reflect historical and evolutionary relationships
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Domain
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highest level: 3 domains Archea, Bacteria and Eukarya
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Systematic
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field of biology that deals with the diversity of life
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kingdom
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6 kingdoms: Archaebacteria, eubacteria, protista, fungi, plantae, animalia
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Taxonomy
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the science of describing, naming, and classifying organisms
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phylogeny
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the evolutionary history of species or group of related species
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Ingestion
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The process of ingesting/eating foood
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Biliateral symmetry
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animals can be divided into mirror images by a single plane
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asymmetry
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animals that have no plane of symmetry
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deuterostomes
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the blastopore gives rise to the anus
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radial symmetry
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Cnidarians, one main axis around which its body parts are arranged.
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protoostomes
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the mouth gives arise from the blastopore
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body plan
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the entire structure of an animal, its organ systems, and the integrated functioning of its parts
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Dorsal
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Top side
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ventral
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The bottom side
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blastopore
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the opening of the cavity that forms in the spherical embryo
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Animal characteristics
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Multicellular eukaryotes, cells lack cell walls, hetrotroph which means they ingest food, breathe oxygen, most reproduce sexually, have a life cycle. Nervous tissue and muscle tissue which is unique to animals
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3 levels of organization of animal cells
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tissue, organs, and organ systems
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Tissue
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there are 4 types of tissue
A group of cells, usually similar in both structure and function. they are bound together to carry out one or more specialized task |
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Epithelial tissue
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protective coverings of the body, linings of internal organs. act as a barrier
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connective tissue
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structural support of body parts, energy storage
Cells separated by matrix Tendonds, ligament cartilage, bone, adipose tissue and blood. |
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muscle tissue
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movement of body parts and internal organs. # types, skeletal, smooth and cardiac
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skeletal muscle
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cells very long voluntary control
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smooth muscle
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line internal organs, involuntary control (lungs)
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cardiac muscle
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only in heart, involuntary
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nervous tissue
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Regulation of body activities by receiving and sending electric signals.
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Homeostasis
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moderate changes in the internal environment
body temperature blood ph blood pressure depends on negative and positive feedback loops |
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organs
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a body part. two or more tissue types that function together
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organ systems
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two or more organs that work to perform a common function
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bone
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connective tissue
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cartilage
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connective tissue
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ligaments
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connective tissue
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tendons
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connective tissue
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adipose
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connective tissue
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neuron
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nerves tissue
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basal metabloic rate BMR vs. Standard metabloic rate SMR
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endotherm
ectotherm |
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undernourished
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diet is deficient in calories
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sources of nutrients for growth and metabolism
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protein, minerals, vitamins, lipids
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Disgestion
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the breakdown of food into moecules that can be absorbed by the body cells
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essential amino acids
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8 of them
Tryptophan methionine valine thhreonine phenylalnine leucine isoleucine lysine (histidine) |
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Tasks involved in complete disgestive systems
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mechanical processing and motility, secretion of enzymes, digestion, aborption, elmination
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salivary gland
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digests starch, by producing saliva
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alimentary cavity
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complete disgestive tracts, in earthworm and grasshopper
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pancreas
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accessory organ in the digestive system, that release disgestive enzymes, into small intestine. Source of alkaline fluid.
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acid chyme
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a nutrient broth, gastic fluid in the stomach
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Gallbladder
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accessory organ in digestive system, stores concentrate bile from liver
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pharynx (digestive)
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passage way
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esophagus (digestive)
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moves food to stomach
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stomach (digestive)
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mix food and storage,
protein disgestion pepsin Controls pass of food, breaks down large good Gastric fluid kill bacteria and destroy extracellular matrix that bind cells |
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pepsin
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an enzyme that digests protein
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small intestine
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major digestive region, 6 meters long digestion and absorption.
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large intestine
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reabsorbs 90% water, minerals reabsorbed into blood, waste elimination,
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duodenum
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the lining of small intestine. first 25 cm
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villi
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densely folded
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microvilli
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further folded billi, to increase surface are for absorption
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liver (digestion)
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secretes bile for fat absorption
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Starch digestin starts?
Protein? |
Mouth
Stomach |
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Arteries vs Veins
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Art: away
Veins: to |
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Bone marrow
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young: red
old:yellow |