Bio Ii Ap Ch 41-44

Front 1

substrate feeders

Back 1

An organism that lives in or on its food source, eating its way through the food.

Front 2

suspension feeders

Back 2

An aquatic animal, such as a clam or a baleen whale, that sifts small food particles from the water.

Front 3

bulk feeders

Back 3

An animal that eats relatively large pieces of food

Front 4

fluid feeders

Back 4

An animal that lives by sucking nutrient-rich fluids from another living organism.

Front 5

undernourished

Back 5

A diet that is chronically deficient in calories.

Front 6

overnourished

Back 6

A diet that is chronically excessive in calories.

Front 7

leptin

Back 7

produced by adipose fat tissue, suppresses appetite as its level increases. as body fat decreases, leptin level falls & appetite increass

Front 8

PYY

Back 8

secreted by small intestine after meals, suppresses appetite, counters ghrelin

Front 9

ghrelin

Back 9

secreted by stomach wall, signals hunger feelings as mealtime approaches

Front 10

insulin

Back 10

A hormone secreted by pancreatic beta cells that lowers blood glucose levels. It promotes the uptake of glucose by most body cells and the synthesis and storage of glycogen in the liver and also stimulates protein and fat synthesis

Front 11

essential nutrients

Back 11

A substance that an organism must absorb in preassembled form because it cannot be synthesized from any other material. In humans, there are essential vitamins, minerals, amino acids, and fatty acids.

Front 12

malnourishment

Back 12

Referring an animal whose diet is missing one or more essential nutrients.

Front 13

essential amino acids

Back 13

An amino acid that an animal cannot synthesize itself and must obtain from food. Eight amino acids are essential in the human adult.

Front 14

essential fatty acids

Back 14

Certain unsaturated fatty acids that animals cannot make.

Front 15

minerals

Back 15

in nutrition, a chemical element other than hydrogen, oxygen, or nitrogen that an organism requires for proper body functioning.

Front 16

digestion

Back 16

process of breaking down food into molecules small enough for the body to absorb

Front 17

enzymatic hydrolysis

Back 17

The process in digestion that splits macromolecules from food by the enzymatic addition of water.

Front 18

absorption

Back 18

uptake of small nutrient molecules by an organism’s own body; the third main stage of food processing, following digestion

Front 19

elimination

Back 19

passing of undigested material out of the digestive compartment

Front 20

intracellular digestion

Back 20

joining of food vacuoles and lysosomes to allow chemical digestion to occur within the cytoplasm of a cell.

Front 21

extracellular design

Back 21

breakdown of food outside cells.

Front 22

gastrovascular cavity

Back 22

extensive pouch that serves as the site of extracellular digestion and a passageway to disperse materials throughout most of an animal’s body

Front 23

complete digestive tract/alimentary canal

Back 23

digestive tube that runs between a mouth and an anus; also called an alimentary canal. An incomplete digestive tract has only one opening

Front 24

peristalsis

Back 24

Rhythmic waves of contraction of smooth muscle that push food along the digestive tract.

Front 25

sphincters

Back 25

ringlike valve consisting of modified muscles in a muscular tube, such as a digestive tract; closes off the tube like a drawstring.

Front 26

salivary glands

Back 26

Exocrine glands associated with the oral cavity. The secretions of salivary glands contain substances to lubricate food, adhere together chewed pieces into a bolus, and begin the process of chemical digestion

Front 27

pancreas

Back 27

gland with dual functions: The nonendocrine portion secretes digestive enzymes and an alkaline solution into the small intestine via a duct; the endocrine portion secretes the hormones insulin and glucagon into the blood.

Front 28

liver

Back 28

largest organ in the vertebrate body. The liver performs diverse functions, such as producing bile, preparing nitrogenous wastes for disposal, and detoxifying poisonous chemicals in the blood.

Front 29

gallbladder

Back 29

organ that stores bile and releases it as needed into the small intestine

Front 30

oral cavity

Back 30

mouth of animal

Front 31

salivary amylase

Back 31

salivary gland enzyme that hydrolyzes starch

Front 32

bolus

Back 32

lubricated ball of chewed food.

Front 33

pharynx

Back 33

area in the vertebrate throat where air and food passages cross; in flatworms, the muscular tube that protrudes from the ventral side of the worm and ends in the mouth

Front 34

epiglottis

Back 34

cartilaginous flap that blocks the top of the windpipe, the glottis, during swallowing, which prevents the entry of food or fluid into the respiratory system.

Front 35

esophagus

Back 35

ehannel that conducts food, by peristalsis, from the pharynx to the stomach

Front 36

gastric juice

Back 36

digestive fluid secreted by stomach

Front 37

stomach

Back 37

organ of the digestive system that stores food and performs preliminary steps of digestion.

Front 38

pepsinogen

Back 38

inactive form of pepsin that is first secreted by specialized (chief) cells located in gastric pits of the stomach

Front 39

acid chyme

Back 39

mixture of recently swallowed food and gastric juice

Front 40

pyloric sphincter

Back 40

In the vertebrate digestive tract, a muscular ring that regulates the passage of food out of the stomach and into the small intestine

Front 41

small intestine

Back 41

longest section of the alimentary canal; the principal site of the enzymatic hydrolysis of food macromolecules and the absorption of nutrients.

Front 42

duodenum

Back 42

first section of the small intestine, where acid chyme from the stomach mixes with digestive juices from the pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and gland cells of the intestinal wall.

Front 43

bile

Back 43

mixture of substances that is produced in the liver, stored in the gallbladder, and acts as a detergent to aid in the digestion and absorption of fats.

Front 44

villi

Back 44

A finger-like projection of the inner surface of the small intestine

Front 45

microvilli

Back 45

One of many fine, fingerlike projections of the epithelial cells in the lumen of the small intestine that increase its surface area

Front 46

lacteal

Back 46

tiny lymph vessel extending into the core of an intestinal villus and serving as the destination for absorbed chylomicrons.

Front 47

chylomicrons

Back 47

One of the small intracellular globules composed of fats that are mixed with cholesterol and coated with special proteins.

Front 48

hepatic portal vein

Back 48

large circulatory channel that conveys nutrient-laden blood from the small intestine to the liver, which regulates the blood’s nutrient content.

Front 49

large intestine/colon

Back 49

tubular portion of the vertebrate alimentary tract between the small intestine and the anus; functions mainly in water absorption and the formation of feces

Front 50

cecum

Back 50

A blind outpocket of a hollow organ such as an intestine.

Front 51

appendix

Back 51

small, fingerlike extension of the vertebrate cecum; contains a mass of white blood cells that contribute to immunity

Front 52

feces

Back 52

wastes of the digestive tract

Front 53

rectum

Back 53

terminal portion of the large intestine where the feces are stored until they are eliminated

Front 54

ruminants

Back 54

animal, such as a cow or a sheep, with an elaborate, multicompartmentalized stomach specialized for an herbivorous diet

Front 55

blood

Back 55

type of connective tissue with a fluid matrix called plasma in which blood cells are suspended

Front 56

blood vessels

Back 56

set of tubes through which the blood moves through the body.

Front 57

heart

Back 57

muscular pump that uses metabolic energy to elevate hydrostatic pressure of the blood. Blood then flows down a pressure gradient through blood vessels that eventually return blood to the heart.

Front 58

blood pressure

Back 58

hydrostatic force that blood exerts against the wall of a vessel

Front 59

open circulatory system

Back 59

circulatory system in which fluid called hemolymph bathes the tissues and organs directly and there is no distinction between the circulating fluid and the interstitial fluid.

Front 60

hemolymph

Back 60

In invertebrates with an open circulatory system, the body fluid that bathes tissues.

Front 61

sinuses

Back 61

Any of the spaces surrounding the organs of the body in animals with open circulatory systems

Front 62

closed circulatory system

Back 62

A circulatory system in which blood is confined to vessels and is kept separate from the interstitial fluid.

Front 63

cardiovascular system

Back 63

closed circulatory system with a heart and branching network of arteries, capillaries, and veins. The system is characteristic of vertebrates

Front 64

atria

Back 64

chamber that receives blood returning to the vertebrate heart.

Front 65

ventricles

Back 65

A heart chamber that pumps blood out of a heart.

Front 66

arteries

Back 66

vessel that carries blood away from the heart to organs throughout the body.

Front 67

veins

Back 67

In animals, a vessel that returns blood to the heart.

Front 68

venules

Back 68

A vessel that conveys blood between a capillary bed and a vein

Front 69

capillaries

Back 69

microscopic blood vessel that penetrates the tissues and consists of a single layer of endothelial cells that allows exchange between the blood and interstitial fluid

Front 70

arterioles

Back 70

vessel that conveys blood between an artery and a capillary bed

Front 71

capillary bed

Back 71

network of capillaries that infiltrate every organ and tissue in the body.

Front 72

gill circulation

Back 72

flow of blood through gills

Front 73

systemic circulation

Back 73

Movement of blood through the systemic circuit

Front 74

pulmocutaneous circuited system

Back 74

route of circulation that directs blood to the skin and lungs

Front 75

systemic circuit

Back 75

branch of the circulatory system that supplies all body organs and then returns oxygen-poor blood to the right atrium via the veins

Front 76

double circulation

Back 76

circulation scheme with separate pulmonary and systemic circuits, which ensures vigorous blood flow to all organs.

Front 77

pulmonary circuit

Back 77

branch of the circulatory system that supplies the lungs.

Front 78

cardiac cycle

Back 78

alternating contractions and relaxations of the heart.

Front 79

systole

Back 79

stage of the heart cycle in which the heart muscle contracts and the chambers pump blood.

Front 80

diastole

Back 80

stage of the heart cycle in which the heart muscle is relaxed, allowing the chambers to fill with blood

Front 81

cardiac output

Back 81

volume of blood pumped per minute by the left ventricle of the heart.

Front 82

heart rate

Back 82

rate of heart contraction.

Front 83

stroke volume

Back 83

amount of blood pumped by the left ventricle in each contraction

Front 84

atrioventricular valve (AV valve)

Back 84

valve in the heart between each atrium and ventricle that prevents a backflow of blood when the ventricles contract.

Front 85

semilunar valve

Back 85

valve located at the two exits of the heart, where the aorta leaves the left ventricle and the pulmonary artery leaves the right ventricle

Front 86

pulse

Back 86

rhythmic stretching of the arteries caused by the pressure of blood forced through the arteries by contractions of the ventricles during systole.

Front 87

heart murmur

Back 87

hissing sound that occurs when blood squirts backward through a leaky valve in the heart.

Front 88

sinoatrial node/ pacemaker (SA node)

Back 88

region of the heart composed of specialized muscle tissue that sets the rate and timing at which all cardiac muscle cells contract

Front 89

myogenic heart

Back 89

type of heart, such as in vertebrate animals, in which the pacemaker is made up of specialized muscle tissues and located within the heart itself

Front 90

neruogenic heart

Back 90

type of heart, such as in insects, in which the pacemakers originate in motor nerves arising from outside the heart

Front 91

atrioventricular node (AV node)

Back 91

region of specialized muscle tissue between the right atrium and right ventricle. It generates electrical impulses that primarily cause the ventricles to contract.

Front 92

endothelium

Back 92

innermost, simple squamous layer of cells lining the blood vessels; the only constituent structure of capillaries

Front 93

systolic pressure

Back 93

Blood pressure in the arteries during contraction of the ventricles

Front 94

peripheral resistance

Back 94

impedance of blood flow by the arterioles.

Front 95

diastolic pressure

Back 95

Blood pressure that remains between heart contractions

Front 96

lymphatic system

Back 96

system of vessels and lymph nodes, separate from the circulatory system, that returns fluid, proteins, and cells to the blood.

Front 97

lymph

Back 97

colorless fluid, derived from interstitial fluid, in the lymphatic system of vertebrate animals.

Front 98

lymph nodes

Back 98

Organ located along a lymph vessel. Lymph nodes filter lymph and help attack viruses and bacteria

Front 99

plasma

Back 99

liquid matrix of blood in which the cells are suspended

Front 100

red blood cells

Back 100

blood cell containing hemoglobin, which transports O2; also called an erythrocyte

Front 101

white blood cells

Back 101

blood cell that functions in defending the body against infections and cancer cells; also called a leukocyte

Front 102

platelets

Back 102

small enucleated blood cell important in blood clotting; derived from large cells in the bone marrow

Front 103

erythorcytes

Back 103

red blood cell; contains hemoglobin, which functions in transporting oxygen in the circulatory system

Front 104

hemoglobin

Back 104

iron-containing protein in red blood cells that reversibly binds oxygen

Front 105

leukocytes

Back 105

white blood cell; typically functions in immunity, such as phagocytosis or antibody production

Front 106

stem cells

Back 106

Any relatively unspecialized cell that can divide during a single division into one identical daughter cell and one more specialized daughter cell, which can undergo further differentiation

Front 107

erythropoietin (EPO)

Back 107

hormone produced in the kidney when tissues of the body do not receive enough oxygen. This hormone stimulates the production of erythrocytes

Front 108

fibrinogen

Back 108

inactive form of the plasma protein that is converted to the active form fibrin, which aggregates into threads that form the framework of a blood clot.

Front 109

thrombus

Back 109

clump of platelets and fibrin that blocks the flow of blood through a blood vessel

Front 110

hypertension

Back 110

Chronically high blood pressure within the arteries

Front 111

hemophilia

Back 111

human genetic disease caused by a sex-linked recessive allele; characterized by excessive bleeding following injury

Front 112

fibrin

Back 112

activated form of the blood-clotting protein fibrinogen, which aggregates into threads that form the fabric of the clot

Front 113

stroke

Back 113

death of nervous tissue in the brain, usually resulting from rupture or blockage of arteries in the head.

Front 114

heart attack

Back 114

death of cardiac muscle tissue resulting from prolonged blockage of one or more coronary arteries

Front 115

gas exchange

Back 115

uptake of molecular oxygen from the environment and the discharge of carbon dioxide to the environment

Front 116

respiratory medium

Back 116

source of oxygen. It is typically air for terrestrial animals and water for aquatic organisms

Front 117

respiratory surface

Back 117

part of an animal where gases are exchanged with the environment.

Front 118

ventilation

Back 118

Any method of increasing contact between the respiratory medium and the respiratory surface

Front 119

countercurrent exchange

Back 119

opposite flow of adjacent fluids that maximizes transfer rates; for example, blood in the gills flows in the opposite direction in which water passes over the gills, maximizing oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide loss.

Front 120

gills

Back 120

localized extension of the body surface of many aquatic animals, specialized for gas exchange

Front 121

tracheal system

Back 121

gas exchange system of branched, chitin-lined tubes that infiltrate the body and carry oxygen directly to cells in insects

Front 122

lungs

Back 122

invaginated respiratory surface of terrestrial vertebrates, land snails, and spiders that connects to the atmosphere by narrow tubes

Front 123

larynx

Back 123

voice box, containing the vocal cords.

Front 124

vocal cords

Back 124

One of a pair of string-like tissues in the larynx. Air rushing past the tensed vocal cords makes them vibrate, producing sounds

Front 125

trachea

Back 125

windpipe; that portion of the respiratory tube that has C-shaped cartilagenous rings and passes from the larynx to two bronchi

Front 126

bronchi

Back 126

One of a pair of breathing tubes that branch from the trachea into the lungs.

Front 127

bronchioles

Back 127

One of the fine branches of the bronchus that transport air to alveoli.

Front 128

alveoli

Back 128

dead-end, multilobed air sacs that constitute the gas exchange surface of the lungs.

Front 129

breathing

Back 129

process involving alternate inhalation and exhalation of air that ventilates the lungs.

Front 130

positive pressure breathing

Back 130

breathing system in which air is forced into the lungs.

Front 131

negative pressure breathing

Back 131

breathing system in which air is pulled into the lungs

Front 132

diaphragm

Back 132

A sheet of muscle that forms the bottom wall of the thoracic cavity in mammals; active in ventilating the lungs

Front 133

tidal volume

Back 133

volume of air an animal inhales and exhales with each breath

Front 134

vital capacity

Back 134

maximum volume of air that a respiratory system can inhale and exhale

Front 135

residual volume

Back 135

amount of air that remains in the lungs after forcefully exhaling

Front 136

parabronchi

Back 136

site of gas exchange in bird lungs. Parabronchi allow air to flow past the respiratory surface in just one direction

Front 137

breathing control centers

Back 137

brain center that directs the activity of organs involved in breathing

Front 138

partial pressure

Back 138

measure of the concentration of one gas in a mixture of gases; the pressure exerted by a particular gas in a mixture of gases (for instance, the pressure exerted by oxygen in air)

Front 139

respiratory pigments

Back 139

special protein that transports most of the oxygen in blood

Front 140

hemocyanin

Back 140

ype of respiratory pigment that uses copper as its oxygen-binding component. Hemocyanin is found in the hemolymph of arthropods and many molluscs

Front 141

bohr shift

Back 141

lowering of the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen, caused by a drop in pH; facilitates the release of oxygen from hemoglobin in the vicinity of active tissues

Front 142

innate immunity

Back 142

kind of defense that is mediated by phagocytic cells, antimicrobial proteins, the inflammatory response, and natural killer (NK) cells. It is present before exposure to pathogens and is effective from the time of birth

Front 143

acquired immunity

Back 143

kind of defense that is mediated by B lymphocytes (B cells) and T lymphocytes (T cells). It exhibits specificity, memory, and self-nonself recognition. Also called adoptive immunity

Front 144

lymphocytes

Back 144

type of white blood cell that mediates acquired immunity. Lymphocytes that complete their development in the bone marrow are called B cells, and those that mature in the thymus are called T cells

Front 145

antibodies

Back 145

protein secreted by plasma cells (differentiated B cells) that binds to a particular antigen and marks it for elimination; also called immunoglobulin. All antibody molecules have the same Y-shaped structure and in their monomer form consist of two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains joined by disulfide bridges

Front 146

phagocytosis

Back 146

type of endocytosis involving large, particulate substances, accomplished mainly by macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic cells

Front 147

neutrophils

Back 147

most abundant type of white blood cell. Neutrophils are phagocytic and tend to self-destruct as they destroy foreign invaders, limiting their life span to a few days.

Front 148

macrophages

Back 148

phagocytic cell present in many tissues that functions in innate immunity by destroying microbes and in acquired immunity as an antigen-presenting cell

Front 149

monocytes

Back 149

type of white blood cell that migrates into tissues and develops into a macrophage

Front 150

eosinophils

Back 150

type of white blood cell with low phagocytic activity that is thought to play a role in defense against parasitic worms by releasing enzymes toxic to these invaders.

Front 151

dedritic cells

Back 151

antigen-presenting cell, located mainly in lymphatic tissues and skin, that is particularly efficient in presenting antigens to naive helper T cells, thereby initiating a primary immune response.

Front 152

complement system

Back 152

group of about 30 blood proteins that may amplify the inflammatory response, enhance phagocytosis, or directly lyse pathogens. The complement system is activated in a cascade initiated by surface antigens on microorganisms or by antigen-antibody complexes

Front 153

interferon

Back 153

A protein that has antiviral or immune regulatory functions. Interferon ? and interferon-??, secreted by virus-infected cells, help nearby cells resist viral infection; interferon-??, secreted by T cells, helps activate macrophages

Front 154

inflammatory response

Back 154

localized innate immune defense triggered by physical injury or infection of tissue in which changes to nearby small blood vessels enhance the infiltration of white blood cells, antimicrobial proteins, and clotting elements that aid in tissue repair and destruction of invading pathogens; may also involve systemic effects such as fever and increased production of white blood cells.

Front 155

histamine

Back 155

substance released by mast cells that causes blood vessels to dilate and become more permeable during an inflammatory response

Front 156

mast cells

Back 156

vertebrate body cell that produces histamine and other molecules that trigger the inflammatory response.

Front 157

chemokine

Back 157

ny of about 50 different proteins, secreted by many cell types near a site of injury or infection, that help direct migration of white blood cells to an injury site and induces other changes central to inflammation.

Front 158

natural killer (NK) cells

Back 158

type of white blood cell that can kill tumor cells and virus-infected cells; an important component of innate immunity

Front 159

apoptosis

Back 159

changes that occur within a cell as it undergoes programmed cell death, which is brought about by signals that trigger the activation of a cascade of suicide proteins in the cell destined to die.

Front 160

cytokines

Back 160

Any of a group of proteins secreted by a number of cell types, including macrophages and helper T cells, that regulate the function of lymphocytes and other cells of the immune system

Front 161

epitope

Back 161

small, accessible region of an antigen to which an antigen receptor or antibody binds; also called an antigenic determinant

Front 162

B lymphocytes ( B cells)

Back 162

type of lymphocyte that develops to maturity in the bone marrow. After encountering antigen, B cells differentiate into antibody-secreting plasma cells, the effector cells of humoral immunity.

Front 163

T lymphocytes (T cells)

Back 163

type of lymphocyte, including the helper T cells and cytotoxic T cells, that develops to maturity in the thymus. After encountering antigen, T cells are responsible for cell-mediated immunity

Front 164

antigen receptors

Back 164

general term for a surface protein, located on B cells and T cells, that binds to antigens, initiating acquired immune responses. The antigen receptors on B cells are called B cell receptors (or membrane immunoglobulins), and the antigen receptors on T cells are called T cell receptors

Front 165

heavy chains

Back 165

One of the two types of polypeptide chains that make up an antibody molecule and B cell receptor; consists of a variable region, which contributes to the antigen-binding site, and a constant region

Front 166

light chains

Back 166

One of the two types of polypeptide chains that make up an antibody molecule and B cell receptor; consists of a variable region, which contributes to the antigen-binding site, and a constant region

Front 167

B cell receptors

Back 167

antigen receptor on B cells: a Y-shaped, membrane-bound molecule consisting of two identical heavy chains and two identical light chains linked by disulfide bridges and containing two antigen-binding sites; also called a membrane immunoglobulin or membrane antibody.

Front 168

immunoglobulins

Back 168

Any of the class of proteins that function as antibodies. Immunoglobulins are divided into five major classes that differ in their distribution in the body and antigen disposal activities.

Front 169

major histocompatibility complex (MHC)

Back 169

family of genes that encode a large set of cell surface proteins called MHC molecules. Class I and class II MHC molecules function in antigen presentation to T cells. Foreign MHC molecules on transplanted tissue can trigger T cell responses that may lead to rejection of the transplant.

Front 170

antigen presentation

Back 170

process by which an MHC molecule binds to a fragment of an intracellular protein antigen and carries it to the cell surface, where it is displayed and can be recognized by a T cell.

Front 171

thymus

Back 171

small organ in the thoracic cavity of vertebrates where maturation of T cells is completed.

Front 172

effector cells

Back 172

muscle cell or gland cell that performs the body’s responses to stimuli; responds to signals from the brain or other processing center of the nervous system

Front 173

memory cells

Back 173

One of a clone of long-lived lymphocytes, formed during the primary immune response, that remains in a lymphoid organ until activated by exposure to the same antigen that triggered its formation. Activated memory cells mount the secondary immune response

Front 174

clonal selection

Back 174

process by which an antigen selectively binds to and activates only those lymphocytes bearing receptors specific for the antigen. The selected lymphocytes proliferate and differentiate into a clone of effector cells and a clone of memory cells specific for the stimulating antigen. Clonal selection accounts for the specificity and memory of acquired immune responses

Front 175

primary immune response

Back 175

initial acquired immune response to an antigen, which appears after a lag of about 10 to 17 days.

Front 176

plasma cells

Back 176

antibody-secreting effector cell of humoral immunity; arises from antigen-stimulated B cells

Front 177

secondary immune response

Back 177

acquired immune response elicited on second or subsequent exposures to a particular antigen. The secondary immune response is more rapid, of greater magnitude, and of longer duration than the primary immune response

Front 178

humoral immune response

Back 178

branch of acquired immunity that involves the activation of B cells and that leads to the production of antibodies, which defend against bacteria and viruses in body fluids

Front 179

cell mediated immune response

Back 179

branch of acquired immunity that involves the activation of cytotoxic T cells, which defend against infected cells, cancer cells, and transplanted cells.

Front 180

helper T cells

Back 180

type of T cell that, when activated, secretes cytokines that promote the response of B cells (humoral response) and cytotonic T cells (cell-mediated response) to antigens.

Front 181

CD 4

Back 181

surface protein, present on most helper T cells, that binds to class II MHC molecules on antigen-presenting cells, enhancing the interaction between the T cell and the antigen-presenting cell.

Front 182

CD 8

Back 182

A surface protein, present on most cytotoxic cells, that binds to class I MHC molecules on target cells, enhancing the interaction between the T cell and the target cell.

Front 183

monoclonal antibodies

Back 183

Any of a preparation of antibodies that have been produced by a single clone of cultured cells and thus are all specific for the same epitope.

Front 184

membrane attack complex (MAC)

Back 184

molecular complex consisting of a set of complement proteins that forms a pore in the membrane of bacterial and transplanted cells, causing the cells to die by lysis.

Front 185

passive immunity

Back 185

Short-term immunity conferred by the administration of ready-made antibodies or the transfer of maternal antibodies to a fetus or nursing infant; lasts only a few weeks or months because the immune system has not been stimulated by antigens

Front 186

anaphylactic shock

Back 186

An acute, whole-body, life-threatening, allergic response.

Front 187

autoimmune diseases

Back 187

immunological disorder in which the immune system turns against self.

Front 188

ammonia

Back 188

small, very toxic molecule made up of three hydrogen atoms and one nitrogen atom; produced by nitrogen fixation and as a metabolic waste product of protein and nucleic acid metabolism.; requires lots of water to release

Front 189

urea

Back 189

soluble nitrogenous waste excreted by mammals, most adult amphibians, and many marine fishes and turtles; produced in the liver by a metabolic cycle that combines ammonia with carbon dioxide; low toxicity, but requires lots of energy

Front 190

uric acid

Back 190

An insoluble precipitate of nitrogenous waste excreted by land snails, insects, birds, and some reptiles; requires lot & lots of energy

Front 191

filtration

Back 191

In the vertebrate kidney, the extraction of water and small solutes, including metabolic wastes, from the blood by the nephrons.

Front 192

filtrate

Back 192

Fluid extracted by the excretory system from the blood or body cavity. The excretory system produces urine from the filtrate after extracting valuable solutes from it and concentrating it

Front 193

selective reabsorption

Back 193

selective uptake of solutes from a filtrate of blood, coelomic fluid, or hemolymph in the excretory organs of animals

Front 194

secretion

Back 194

In the vertebrate kidney, the discharge of wastes from the blood into the filtrate from the nephron tubules.

Front 195

renal artery

Back 195

blood vessel bringing blood to the kidney

Front 196

renal vein

Back 196

blood vessel draining the kidney.

Front 197

ureter

Back 197

duct leading from the kidney to the urinary bladder.

Front 198

urinary bladder

Back 198

pouch where urine is stored prior to elimination.

Front 199

urethra

Back 199

tube that releases urine from the body near the vagina in females and through the penis in males; also serves in males as the exit tube for the reproductive system

Front 200

renal cortex

Back 200

outer portion of the vertebrate kidney.

Front 201

renal medulla

Back 201

inner portion of the vertebrate kidney, beneath the renal cortex

Front 202

nephron

Back 202

tubular excretory unit of the vertebrate kidney.

Front 203

glomerulus

Back 203

ball of capillaries surrounded by Bowman’s capsule in the nephron and serving as the site of filtration in the vertebrate kidney.

Front 204

Bowman's Capsule

Back 204

cup-shaped receptacle in the vertebrate kidney that is the initial, expanded segment of the nephron where filtrate enters from the blood.

Front 205

pathway of filtrate in kidney

Back 205

filtration in b-man's capsule, proximal tubule, loop of henle, distal tubule, renal pelvis, collection duct, u-bladder

Front 206

renal pelvis

Back 206

Funnel-shaped chamber that receives processed filtrate from the vertebrate kidney’s collecting ducts and is drained by the ureter.

Front 207

proximal tubule

Back 207

In the vertebrate kidney, the portion of a nephron immediately downstream from Bowman’s capsule that conveys and helps refine filtrate.

Front 208

loop of henle

Back 208

long hairpin turn, with a descending and ascending limb, of the renal tubule in the vertebrate kidney; functions in water and salt reabsorption.

Front 209

distal tubule

Back 209

in the vertebrate kidney, the portion of a nephron that helps refine filtrate and empties it into a collecting duct.

Front 210

collecting duct

Back 210

ocation in the kidney where filtrate from renal tubules is collected; the filtrate is now called urine.

Front 211

cortical nephrons

Back 211

Nephrons located almost entirely in the renal cortex. These nephrons have a reduced loop of Henle.

Front 212

juxtamedullary nephrons

Back 212

Nephrons with well-developed loops of Henle that extend deeply into the renal medulla.

Front 213

afferent arteriole

Back 213

blood vessel supplying a nephron.

Front 214

efferent arteriole

Back 214

blood vessel draining a nephron

Front 215

peritubular capillaries

Back 215

network of tiny blood vessels that surrounds the proximal and distal tubules in the kidney.

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vasa recta

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capillary system that serves the loop of Henle.

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countercurrent multiplier systems

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countercurrent system in which energy is expended in active transport to facilitate exchange of materials and create concentration gradients. For example, the loop of Henle actively transports NaCl from the filtrate in the upper part of the ascending limb of the loop, making the urine-concentrating function of the kidney more effective

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antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

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hormone produced in the hypothalamus and released from the posterior pituitary. It promotes water rentention by the kidneys as part of an elaborate feedback scheme that helps regulate the osmolarity of the blood.

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JGA (juxtaglomerular apparatus)

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A specialized tissue located near the afferent arteriole that supplies blood to the glomerulus.

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angiotensin II

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hormone that stimulates constriction of precapillary arterioles and increases reabsorption of NaCl and water by the proximal tubules of the kidney, increasing blood pressure and volume.