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89 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Higher Temps?
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-enzymes faster, until denature
-air holds more water -water holds less O2 -Muscles contract faster |
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Colder Temps?
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-nerves fire slower
-water freezes, cells rupture |
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High critical temps?
Low critical temps? Between them? |
- max temp that can tolerate, varies with species, within on health/genes
- minimum temp that can tolerate - best for animal and doesn't burn ener. for BT (thermal neutral zone-TNZ) |
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Determinants of body temp
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Sum all:
- conduction - convection - evaporation - radiation - metabolism |
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Conduction (temp)
(Ecto and endo) |
- direct heat transfer, exchange through solids
- what impacts it: distance from source difference tween temps conductivity of layers(insulators) endo=lose heat via conduction ecto=gain/loss on what temp they want to get to |
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Convection temp
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- between liquids and gases
- 2subtypes: - free= as temp change, density changes - forced= not dependent on density |
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Evaporation temp
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- xfer of heat to water, water goes to gas
- cooling process only - related to existing humidity - higher humidity->less evap |
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Radiation temp
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- all radiate heat to some degree
- shorter wavelength contain more energy=more heat - don't have to radiate the same wavelength as absorbed, can change to lose or retain |
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Metabolism temp
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-all reactions produce heat
-meta rate=energy use over time -can change to purely make heat - cold= up MR, hot= drop MR (doesn't work as good) |
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Overall body temp
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- BT=heat gained-heat lost
- gained= meta+radiat+conduct+convect -lost= radia+conduct+convect+evap |
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Below the LCT?
If endotherm? |
- conserve and produce heat
-bigger=more tolerant to cold (lower surf to vol ratio) -increase MR, reduce surf area -change conductance by modify thickness (insulation, fat blubber) -turn back to wind, evap is zero -reduce flow to regions with high heat loss -below 0C must heat blood to prevent ice |
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Adaptations for cold weather
- Color? White depressed Black depress White erect Black erect |
- color of body surf. impacts amount of heat absorbed/lost. Outer insulation is depressed or erect affects
- worst for heat retention - littlebetter - pretty bad - best for heat retention (good at high wind, insul layer next to skin) |
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Below LCT if small
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- can't add insulation
- migrate, or hibernate - minimize narrow regions of the body, make extremities shorter, reduce area -allens rule=animals raised in cold climates have smaller extrem. than other at |
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Retes
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-any group of BV's that run anti-parallel (opposite dir.)-veins and arteries next to each other
-if next to each other long enough can exchange heat, packed close together -go into limbs to trap heat, from artery to vein |
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Insulation
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-add layers of adipose
-both prevent heat loss and can use as energy -blubber is better |
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Brown Fat
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-adipose that when broken down produces almost pure heat
-diff animals have diff amounts - humans only have a little(shoulder blades/vertabre) -usally in hibernating animals |
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Shivering
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-muscle movements produce lots o heat, 4-7%
- move rapidly=produce heat -most animals only use when they are cold |
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Ectotherms at cold temps
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-use most strategies to some degree (generally no brown fat or blubber)
-mainly trap heat by modify blood flow -alter where they chill |
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retes in ecto
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- great white runs 2 deg C warmer than water
-maki is same as GW - tune uses same method - some turtles/tortoises |
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Allen's rule
Bergmann's rule Isozyme |
-animals raised in cold climates have smaller extrem. than same species at warmer temps
- animals at colder climates have larger bodies than same species at warmer temps -protein that does same funx as another but has different optimal temp (cold adaption) |
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basking
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-lay out in sunny locale
-plants are better to bask on cold days than rocks -used by endo, but not as primary heat source |
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Hibernation
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-sleeping to avoid cold spell, shortage of water and food
-except bears, drop meta and BT and small, easy to heat back up -most wake up to pee -tiggered by temp or photoperiod -ecto can too, but some allow bodies to freeze |
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Hiber energy use order
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-Glucose first, need for cardiac, brain, membrane potential
-Adipose second -Protein third (nitro waste that require water loss) |
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Bears
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-too much energy to heat if entered true hiber.
-metabolic depression, not on same scale |
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Torpor
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-short term inactivity from low temps, muscles can't funx)
-seen in birds -reg. BT, at lower lvl -used to survive very cold nights |
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Hummingbirds-turpor
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-awake=200 HR
-torpor=1-5 HR -enter slowly to allow HR drop -rate drops from 350/min to 1.22 min -typical of hibern. few breaths, long pause |
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Freezing (hiber)
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Probs:
-ice crystals rupture cells -cell dehydrated -ischemia=circ and resp shut down -only found in ectotherms |
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Ice crystals
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-prevent formation, or prevent form inside cells
-add glycerol lowers freezing point -pump everything that lowers freezing points and allow to freeze |
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Ischemia
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-cells have been anerobic for long time, high lactic acid
-when thaw, lactic relased=body in shock -lots of free radicals (O-), highly toxic -we don't know how the animals avoid this |
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Diapause
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-hibernation like state that exhibits increased resistance to physical stress
-resistant to lack of H20 and air, some can survive in space -under hormonal control funx similar to hibern. |
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Below freezing temps, cell mem/fats?
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-alter chem structure of cell membranes
-unsat fats freeze at lower temps than sat. fats - allows NS to funx at -30 deg |
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Wood frogs
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-freeze solid
-extracellular freeze, but cells don't -add lots of glucose -adds chems to induce freezing in blood so frog can control freezing -mostly anaerob resp for the winter |
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arctic fish
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-forms ice crystals in blood and cells,but don't freeze solid
-adds proteins to blood that block ice from spreading once it forms |
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Above the ACT
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-proteins denature/degrading
-brain overheats -cell memb. become fluid and leak -animals need to reduce BT -need to use evaporation to cool, but can do some things to avoid gaining heat |
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Color coding to avoid heat
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-similar to how erect fur blocks heat transfer for cold animals-desert animals also have erect hair/feathers
-black radiates more heat and absorbs less -tend to dark erect |
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Evap in hot climates
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-req. large quantity of water
-temp climes, evap less effective -need to modify behavior, find a dark/cool/moist place during hot part of day |
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Forms of evaporation
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-sweating=excrete water through pores of skin. Use lots of water, works fast, over entire body
-panting=quick shallow breaths. remove heat from head, limited ability to cool the core |
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Behavior and hot weather
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-size affects number and type of sun refuges available
-larger can't fit many places, but absorb heat slower -smaller animals can use phys resistance and behavioral escapes |
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Larger desert animals
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-the camel
-endotherms but not homeotherms -can't hide, so absorb heat -outlast the day (140F-dusk) and bottom at night (34F-dawn) |
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Smaller desert animals
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-crepuscular (active at dawn and dusk)
-day only for short periods -still lose water -pees in burrow->high humidity->less water loss |
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Estivation
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-dormancy to avoid a hot/dry cycle
-similar to hibern. in hot weather -often in desert amphibs -come out during the rains and then estivate until next season |
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Function of sensory organs
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-To enable an organism to function within its environment
-To transmit information about the environment to the CNS or ganglia so the organism can act on it |
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Types of receptors
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-Photo, chemo(taste), noci(pain), thermo, osmo(water pressure)
-pressure, auditory, equilibrium, electrical |
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Photoreceptors
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-detect light, convert into electric pulse, brain turns into an image
-excite neurons, create action pot. -invert=mult forms -vert=1 basic form than modify on habitat |
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SImple Eyes?
Compound Eyes |
-just record light intensity & the ganglia/brain tell the animal to move towards or away from the light
-eye composed of numerous indep. units. each sends signal to brain which assembles picture |
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Vertabrate eye
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-The retina forms all of the nerve impulses & transmits them to the brain via the optic nerve
-Unlike the invert. This eye can adjust for distance Uses the lens |
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2 ways of adjusting the lens
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-Reptiles, fish, & amphibians move the lens forward or backward to adjust for distance
-The mammals & birds stretch or compress the lens to alter the angle of light coming through the lens -Done by the ciliary muscle |
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Rods?
Cones? |
-rods require less light, don't see color (use for night vision)
-cones require more light, see color, prefered by humans, other animals ignore color. |
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How humans see (order)
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-Cornea->Pupil->acq. humour->light focused by lens->vitreous humour->retina (elec. impulse)->optic nerve->brain
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Chemoreceptors
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-detect chemicals, require chem. to be dissolved in water
-detects blood and pH levels |
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How chemorec work
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-Chemical bonds to the proper receptor on the nerve cell & opens a chemically gated ion channel-> ions rush into the cell->action potential is produced
-More receptors in the area the better the sense |
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Somatosensory Rec
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-detect pain, pressure, temp, movement
-enable us to det. shape and texture by how many fire -pain rec. detect tissue damage, doesn't become used to stimuli over time |
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Thermorec
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2 types:
-Organ of Ruffini detect hot -Krause's end-bulbs detect cold -usually both next to each other -detect change in temp |
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The lateral line
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-fish and tadpoles. detect water currents using hairs
-doesn't work on land, amphibs lose them |
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Balance
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-sensors located in the ear
-3 fluid filled rings w/salt crystals -each groove has hairs -as body moves, crystals move the hair in diff. angles creating different stimuli which converts muscle adj. to maintain balance |
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Audiotory Rec
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-inner ear contains fluid filled area
-vibrations cause malleus, incus, stapes to vibrate, creates waves which trigger hairs->trigger nerves -adust sound by diff. length hairs, size=tripped by certain range - |
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Path of sound in ear
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-pinna->auditory canal->tympanic memb.->malleus->incus->stapes->elliptical window->cochlea
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Osmorecp
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-in hypothalamus
-detect water pressure and pass info so can adjust -too high, pituitary to tell kidney to lose water -too low=feel thirsty |
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Electrorecp
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-only in few bony fish and sharks
-ampullar of lorenzini=name of recp -locale=head -they can hunt by picking up elec. generated by the heart of other species -bad on land, not in rept. or birds -only mammals with them are monotremes (egg layers) who are aquatic |
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Magnetic recep
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-not 100% sure how, but birds/whales/some fish migrate along magnetic lines
-some evidence they have magnetic metals in the brain |
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Infrared Sens
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-only in snakes (heat sensors)
-can detech body heat or solar radia. -locale=lips in constrictors and pits around the eye in pit vipers -.0003 C change in temp |
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NS funx.
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-rapid xmission of signals
-integration=intrepret stimuli -control of system/coord=control body and coord funx/movements. not very well understood |
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Nerve tissue
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-bloated center with appendages sticking it
-short ones called dendrites (receive signals) -long one is the axon (sends signal on to muscle or other nerve) |
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Parts of nerve cell
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-cell body is the soma
-short receiving branches are dendrites -long tail is the axon where signal passed on -schwann cells make myelin sheath (neuroglia) -myelin sheath wraps the axon -nodes of ranvier are tiny gaps in myelin sheath |
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myelin sheath
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-80% lipid, 20% protein
-aids in sending impulse down axon -myelin removed=paralysis and death -no myelin=grey matter, myelin=white matter |
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Neuroglia
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-secrete myelin sheath
-protect neuron, add support -DOES NOT conduct electric -reabsorb some neuroxmitter |
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What gens resting memb pot
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-cell membrane hydrophobic
-lots of special ion pumps switches 3 NA out of cell for 2 K -cell becomes neg, outside is positive -na channels can be activ. chemically by neuroxmitter |
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Gap junx
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-very rare, purely electrical
-cell memb. directly touch -xmitter cell pours ions into receiver, gen action pot. -requires large cells, only found in largest axons -faster than synaptic junx |
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synaptic junx
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-space between cells called a synapse
-xmitter cell sends vesicle containing neuroxmitter to receiver -vesicle fuses with receiver, vesicle open, NA channels open -2 means of removing signal to have AP, (breakdown NX, reabsorb NX) -NX can be inhibitory or excitatory |
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Periph. Nerve Cells
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-3 types of neurons
1) Sensory (recieves stimulus) 2) Inter (xmits signal to brain or spine) 3) motor (xmit AP to muscle or gland) |
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Ganglia
Reflex |
-small collection of nerves that are self sufficient.
-collection of nerves that handles one or more reflexes, some only have this, no CNS -automatic response to a stimulus not integrated into CNS |
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Cns
Pns Somatic NS Autonomic NS |
-central (brain and spine)
-peripheal (all else. Subdivide into som/auto) -have control over (skeletal muscle) -involuntary. Subdivide into sympathetic, parasymp, enteric) |
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enteric NS
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-between muscle layers of GI tract
-peristalsis and enzyme secretion -comms with CNS by vagus nerve -if vagus severed, still funx. has own sys |
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parasymp NS
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-dilates BV's around GI tract. ACtive after eating, increases absorbtion
-enhances release of saliva and digestive enzymes -reduces diameter of bronchi |
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symp NS
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-shunts blood away from GI tract and skin
-prepares for flight or fight -increases HR -shunts blood the muscles and lungs -dilate bronchi to increase O2 supply |
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somatic NS
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-from CNS to muscles
-vol. nerves linked to skeletal muscles -not protected by BBB |
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Perphial NS
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-all not brain or spine
-some vol. some invol. -none protected by BBB |
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Central NS
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-larger in # of cells and mass than the PNS
-brain and spinal cord -devoted to info processing -lots of energy and O2 need |
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Spinal Cord
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-extends from brain stem and down the inside the vert for 18 inches
-protected by BBB=meninges (3 layers) -Inner gray=no myelin, sends to other parts of spine -outer white=myelin, sends outside spine and over longer distances |
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3 layers of BBB
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-dura mater (tough outer layer)
-arachnoid memb (soft loose 2nd layer) -pia mater (soft tight inner) |
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Brain
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-protected by same meninges as spine
-primary controller of PNS -brain size varies with species size, larger animal larger the brain |
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Cerebrum
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-humans=subdiv in 4 regions, 2 hemispheres
-speech, movement, olfaction, memory, emotion |
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cerebellum
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-10 smaller lobes, divided into hemis.
-intrepret sensory info, balance, plays role in attention spans and language |
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corpus callosum
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-connects both hemis of cerebrum and bellum
-largest white matter region, only found in mammals who don't lay eggs -larger in fems than males. fems have more cross talk between sides of brain, better multi-taskers |
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thalamus
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-regs sleep and awake time
-receives sensory info for: taste, touch and temp, vision, GI signals, urinary signals |
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hypothalamus
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-links NS to the endocrine sys via the pituitary
-regulates the thyroid -regulates BP, BT(including fever), hunger levels, circadian rhythm |
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Pons
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-regulates what gets into the higher brain regions
-receives signals from cranial nerves and filters out ones that shouldn't get to brain -rept, birds, mams have 12 Cnerves, others have 10 or less |
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medulla oblongata
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-controls autonomic funx
-relays signals up to pons, only removes ones that are meant for it. -regs breathing, heart rate, most smooth muscle |
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Misc dacts of brain:
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-best invert is the cephalopods
-regions for map sense larger in males than females, don;t like to ask dir. -frogs can have all brain removed except the medulla and live noramlly |
