Bio Final Exam

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Central Dogma

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Scheme for information flow in the cell (DNA -> RNA -> Protein)

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Beneficial

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any mutation, allele, or trait that increases an individual's fitness

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Codon

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Sequence of 3 nucleotides in DNA or RNA

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Deleterious

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any mutation, allele , or trait that reduces an individual's fitness

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Duplication

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Additional copy of part of a chromosome

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Deletion

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Loss of part of a chromosome

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Frameshift Mutation

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Addition or deletion odlf a nucleotide in a coding sequence that shifts the reading frame of the mRNA

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Genetic Code

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set of all codons and their meaning

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Genetic Screen

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Technique that identifies individuals with a particular type of mutation

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Inversion

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Mutation in which a segment of a chromosome breaks from the rest of the chromosome, flips, and rejoins the chromosome reversed

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Karyotype

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Distinctive appearance of the chromosomes of an individual including number, length, and banding

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Knock Out Allele

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A mutant allele that doesn't produce a functional product (also called loss of function allele or null allele)

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mRNA

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A RNA molecule transcribed from DNA that carries info that soecofoes the amino acid squence of a polypeptide

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Metabolic Pathway

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Linked series of biochemical reactions that buold up or break down a particular molecule; product of one reaction is the substrate of the next

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Missense Mutation

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Change in a single base pair that changes one amino acid for another within the sequence of the protein

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Neutral

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Any mutation or mutant allele that doesn't have an effect on fitness

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Nonsense Mutation

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Change in a single base pair that converts an amino acid into a stop codon

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One gene, One enzyme Hypothesis

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Each gene is responsible for making one enzyme

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Point Mutation

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Change in a single base pair

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Silent Mutation

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Point mutation that changes the sequence of a codon without changing the amino acid

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Transcription

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Process thatbuses DNA as a template to produce complementary RNA

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Translation

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A polypeptide is synthesized from codons of mRNA

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Translocation

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A type of mutation in which a piece of chromosome moves to a nonhomologous chromosome or movement of a ribosome down mRNA during translation

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Epistasis

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One set of genes alters the effect of another

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Promoter

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Transcription start signal

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# of codons that specify amino acids

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61

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Energy for translocation of ribosomes

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GTP

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What RNA polymerase synthesizes mRNA?

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RNA polymerase 2

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Centriole

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One of two small cylindrical structures found together within the centrosome near the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell

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Centromere

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Where sister chromatids are joined

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Kinetochore

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At the centromere where microtubules attach to the chromosome

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Chromatid

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One of the two replicated chromosomes connected at the centromere

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Chromatin

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Complex of DNA and proteins that compose eukaryotic chromosomes

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G1 Phase

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Right before synthesis (s phase)

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G2 Phase

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Between synthesis (s phase) and mitosis (m phase)

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Interphase

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Includes everything but M phase (G1, S phase, and G2)

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Metaphase

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Chromosomes kine up in middle of cell

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Metastasis

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Spread of cancerous cells from their site of origin to distant sites in the body

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Oncogene

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Any gene thats protein product stimulates cell division at all times and promotes cancer development

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Prometaphase

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The nuclear envelope breaks down and microtubules attach to kinetochores

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Prophase

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Chromosomes become visible and the spindle apparatus forms

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Protein kinase

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An enzyme that catalyzes the addition of a phosphate group to another protein typically activating or inactivating the substrate protein

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Somatic cell

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Body cells

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Synthesis phase (s phase)

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DNA is synthesized and chromosomes are replicated

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Telophase

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Daughter chromosomes have separated and new nuclear envelope begin to form around each set of chromosomes

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Tumor suppressor

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A protein (p53 or RB) that prevents cell division such as when the cell has DNA damage

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Apoptosis

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Self destruction of a cell

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Differentiation

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A cell becomes a distinct specialized cell type

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Evo-devo

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Research field focused on how changes and developmentally important genes has led to the evolution of new phenotypes

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Gastrulation

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Process of coordinated cells movements including the moving of some cells from the outer surface of the embryo to the interior that results in the formation of three germ layers and the axes of the embryo

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Homeotic mutations

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A mutation that causes one body part to be substituted for another

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Hormone

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A signaling molecule that can trigger characteristic responses in distant target cells at very low concentrations

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Hox genes

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A class of genes found in several animal phyla that are expressed in a distinctive pattern along the anterior posterior axis in early embryos and control formation of specific structures

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In situ hybridization

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A type of hybridization that uses a labeled complementary DNA RNA or modified nucleic acid strands to localize a specific DNA or RNA sequence in a portion or section of tissue

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Meristem

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In plants a group of undifferentiated cells including stem cells which can divide and develop into various adult tissues throughout the life of a plant

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Morphogen

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A molecule that exists in a concentration gradient and provide spatial information to embryonic cells

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Segmentation genes

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A group of genes that control the formation and patterning of body segmentation in embryonic development

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Stem cell

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Any relatively undifferentiated cells that can divide to produce a daughter cell that remains a stem cell and a daughter cell that can differentiate into specific cell types

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Cytoplasmic determinants

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In egg cytoplasm, regulatory molecules that end up in soecific populations of the blastomeres after cleavage

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Vitelline envelope

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Protects egg, fibrous sheet of glycoproteins

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Zona pellucida

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Mammalian really thick version of vitelline envelop

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Cortical granules

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Small enzyme filled vesicles that are activated during fertilization

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Jelly layer

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Thick gellatinius matrix around vitelline layer for extra protection

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Cleavage

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Stage of rapid division after fertilization

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Blastomeres

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Cells created during cleavage

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Blastula

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Mass of blastomeres

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Blastocyst

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Type of blastula in mammals

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Trophoblast

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Exterior of blastula, thin walled & hollow; contains inner cell mass, becomes part of placenta

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Inner cell mass

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Inside trophoblast, later develops into embryo

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Gastrulation

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Higly organized cell movements rearrange embryonic cells into gastrula

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Blastocoel

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Fluid filled interior space of blastula

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Blastopore

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Circular opening in blastula

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Anterior

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Mouth

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Posterior

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Anus

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Dorsal

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Back

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Ventral

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Tummy

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Organogenesis

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Tissue and organ formation

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Somites

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Paired blocks of meso dermal tissue on either side od dorsal midline

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Notochord

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Rod through ant-post axis, simple internal skeleton, disappears in vertabraes

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Chordates

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Humans & vertabraes

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Beadle and Tatum worked w...

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N. crassa knock out mutants that lacked the ability to synthesize certain compounds

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What best decribes the genetic screen Srv & Horowitz did for argine synthesis?

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Irradiated N. crassa cells, grew all the mutants on arginine, then grew each mutant on medium containg a dofferent intermediate in the arginine pathway

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What change in the nature of the gentic code would happennif there were 3 base pairs instead of 2?

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The extra base pair would make it possible to have codons w 2 bases instead of 3

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Genetic code properties

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1redundant

2unambiguous

3nonoverlapping

4nearly universal

5conservative