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103 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Lymphocytes |
White blood cells that patrol the body, fight infection, and prevent disease. |
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Neutrophil |
A type of white blood cell, a granulocyte that is filled with microscopic granules, little sacs containing enzymes that digest microorganisms. |
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Eosinophil |
a white blood cell containing granules that are readily stained by eosin. |
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Basophil |
a basophilic white blood cell |
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Erythrocyte |
Red blood cells. |
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Antigen |
a toxin or other foreign substance that induces an immune response in the body, especially the production of antibodies. |
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Antibodies |
Proteins produced by lymphocytes and directed against specific pathogens or foreign issue. |
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Co-evolution |
the influence of closely associated species on each other in their evolution. |
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Phagocytosis |
Cells that endocytose (engulf) pathogens. |
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What are the two types of T cells? |
Helper T-cells and Killer T-cells. Helper T-Cells release T Cell Cytokine which suppresses or regulate immune responses. Killer T-Cells recognize and kill a virus-infected cell. |
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What do B lymphocytes do? |
A lymphocyte not processed by the thymus gland, and responsible for producing antibodies.
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What type of cells produce antibodies?
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The cells of the immune system that make antibodies to invading pathogens such as viruses. They form memory cells that remember the same pathogen for faster antibody production in future infections. B cells or B lymphocytes |
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What are antibiotics? What do they treat & how do they work? Can you take antibiotics for the flu? |
a medicine (such as penicillin or its derivatives) that inhibits the growth of or destroys microorganisms. |
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What is antibiotic resistance? |
Antibiotic resistance is the ability of a microorganism to withstand the effects of an antibiotic. It is a specific type of drug resistance. |
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What is the inflammatory response? What are the characteristics of the inflammatory response? |
The inflammatory response (inflammation) occurs when tissues are injured by bacteria, trauma, toxins, heat, or any other cause. The damaged cells release chemicals including histamine, bradykinin, and prostaglandins. These chemicals cause blood vessels to leak fluid into the tissues, causing swelling. |
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What is a vaccine? How do they work? |
A vaccine contains a killed or weakened part of a germ that is responsible for infection. By introducing the pathogen into the bloodstream, B-cells are stimulated into action, creating antibodies and a memory record of the pathogen, resulting in immunity.
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antibodies and a memory record of the pathogen, resulting in immunity. Name some physical and chemical barriers that the human body has to resist infection
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* Blood clotting - any open wound soon is sealed with a scab preventing entrance of pathogenic microorganisms. A clot consists of a mesh of blood proteins which trap blood cells. It is an interesting biochemical pathway - well worth further investigation!
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If a patient is given an ‘agent’ containing the same antigens as the pathogenic microorganism then their body will produce antibodies against the pathogen.How does the body defend itself from invading microbes? a toxin or other foreign substance that induces an immune response in the body, especially the production of antibodies.
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Vagina |
Functions as the receptacle for the penis and carries sperm to the uterus and fallopian tubes. Also used for childbirth. |
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Uterus |
Responsible for development of the embryo and the fetus during pregnancy. |
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Oviduct |
the tube through which an ovum or egg passes from an ovary. |
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Ovaries |
Produces oocytes (eggs) for fertilization and they produce the reproductive hormones, oestrogen progesterone. |
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Oocyte |
a cell in an ovary that may undergo meiotic division to form an ovum. |
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Cervix |
Allows flow of menstrual blood from the uterus into the vagina, and direct the sperms into the uterus during intercourse. |
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Sperm (Where are they produced? Where are they stored?) |
Sperm are produced, stored, and delivered by the male reproductive system. The male reproductive system includes the testes, urethra, vas deferens, prostate gland, seminal vesicle, and penis. The testes contain coiled structures called seminiferous tubules, which are the sites of sperm production. |
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Bulbourethral gland
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Secrete an alkaline, mucous, fluid into the urethra prior to sperm arrival that protects the sperm from the normally acidic urethra. |
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Epididymis |
Serves as a storage area and final maturation center for the spermatozoa. |
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Testes |
an organ that produces spermatozoa (male reproductive cells). |
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Prostate gland |
A gland in the male reproductive system that is located just below the bladder. It surrounds part of the urethra, the canal that empties the bladder. |
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Seminal vesicle |
Holds the liquid that mixes sperm to form semen releases fructose-> sperm use as energy |
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Penis |
the male genital organ of higher vertebrates, carrying the duct for the transfer of sperm during copulation. In humans and most other mammals, it consists largely of erectile tissue and serves also for the elimination of urine. |
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What is testosterone? Where is it produced? How does it influence the body? |
a steroid hormone that stimulates development of male secondary sexual characteristics, produced mainly in the testes, but also in the ovaries and adrenal cortex. |
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What is Estrogen? Where is it produced? How does it influence the body? |
any of a group of steroid hormones that promote the development and maintenance of female characteristics of the body. Such hormones are also produced artificially for use in oral contraceptives or to treat menopausal and menstrual disorders. |
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Which structures contribute secretions to semen? |
The testes make sperm which is stored in the epididymis. When one ejaculates the sperm is released and mixed with seminal(milky) fluid from the prostate gland. |
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What hormones control male reproductive functions? |
Sperm production and androgen synthesis are controlled by a complex feedback loop involving the testes, hypothalamus, and pituitary gland. The pituitary controls testis function by producing follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). FSH stimulates spermatogenesis, in part by affecting Sertoli cells, while LH stimulates androgen production by interstitial cells. |
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What hormones control female reproductive functions? |
The hypothalamus secretes GnRH, which stimulates the anterior pituitary gland to release gonadotropins FSH and LH. |
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Which birth control is 100% effective? |
Not having sex |
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Which birth control can provide protection against STDs. |
Condoms |
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Why might “morning sickness” be advantageous to a developing fetus? |
Protects fetus from natural toxins carried by meat, fish, poultry, and eggs because they are the foods most likely to carry parasites and pathogens that could harm the fetus. Studies show that women who get morning sickness are less likely to miscarry. |
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How does alcohol consumption during pregnancy affect the fetus? In what trimester is it most dangerous? |
Child may have a small head, flat face, and narrow eye openings, growth problems, birth defects, problems bonding and feeding. 1st trimester heart defects and brain-related defects, and 3rd trimester growth problems. |
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How does smoking affect the fetus? |
Smoking lowers the amount of oxygen to baby, increases baby’s heart rate, increases chances of miscarriage and stillbirth, increases risk that baby is born premature. Effective during the 2nd and 3rd trimester. |
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Zygote |
A diploid cell resulting from the fusion of two haploid gametes; a fertilized ovum |
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Embryo |
An unborn or unhatched offspring in the process of development. |
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Fetus |
An unborn offspring of a mammal, in particular an unborn human baby more than eight weeks after conception. |
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Blastocyst |
A thin-walled hollow structure in early embryonic development that contains a cluster of cells called the inner cell mass from which the embryo arises. |
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Morula |
a solid ball of cells resulting from division of a fertilized ovum, and from which a blastula is formed. |
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What day following fertilization does implantation occur? |
Implantation typically occurs 6 to 10 days after ovulation |
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Is sperm production continuous from puberty to death in males? Is oocyte production continuous from puberty to death in females? |
Spermatogenesis occurs in males (human males) continuously from puberty to death whereas oogenesis starts in females at puberty and then occurs on a monthly basis until the menopause. |
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What is the benefit/advantage of sexual reproduction? |
Sexual reproduction leads to a greater variety in population. This means that a species (animal or plant) can adapt more quickly to changes in its surroundings (or environment). |
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What is the purpose of meiosis? What type of cells does this process act upon? |
Meiosis is where sex cells are created |
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What is the purpose of mitosis? What type of cells does this process act upon? |
Mitosis is when a nucleus of a cell divides to create two nuclei; each containing an identical copy of DNA. Parent cell dividing into two daughter cells. |
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What are the four stages of mitosis (you do not need to memorize what occurs in each stage and the specific order)? |
a. Interphase: The first stage, in which the DNA begins to divide within the nucleus.
b. Prophase: The second stage, in which the chromosomes become visible, the nucleus dissolves, and centrioles form and move to opposite ends of the cell.
c. Metaphase: The third stage, in which the chromosomes line up in the center of the cell in a body called a centromere, while spindle fibers form attached to the centrioles.
d. Anaphase: The fourth stage, in which the centromeres divide, separating each strand of chromosome into two, which are pulled to opposite ends of the cell by the spindle fibers and centrioles.
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What are the differences between mitosis and meiosis? |
Mitosis is for dna divides into two daughter cells, meiosis is when sperm cells are created in males and eggs are created in females forming 23 chromosomes each. |
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What are the four bases found in DNA? |
adenine (a), cytosine (c ), guanine (G), thymine (T) |
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Homozygous |
Having identical pairs of genes for any given pair of hereditary characteristics. |
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Heterozygous |
The genetics term heterozygous refers to a pair of genes where one is dominant and one is recessive |
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Genotype |
A combination of alleles situated on corresponding chromosomes that determines a specific trait. |
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Phenotype |
The physical appearance of an organism as distinguished from its genetic makeup. |
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Allele |
one of two or more alternative forms of a gene that arise by mutation and are found at the same place on a chromosome. |
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Gamete |
a mature haploid male or female germ cell that is able to unite with another of the opposite sex in sexual reproduction to form a zygote. |
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Somatic cell |
any cell of a living organism other than the reproductive cells. |
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Genes |
a unit of heredity that is transferred from a parent to offspring and is held to determine some characteristic of the offspring. |
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Chromosomes |
a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes. |
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What is hemophilia? How is it passed through generations? |
a medical condition in which the ability of the blood to clot is severely reduced, causing the sufferer to bleed severely from even a slight injury. The condition is typically caused by a hereditary lack of a coagulation factor, most often factor VIII. |
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What is sickle cell? How is it passed through generations? |
a severe hereditary form of anemia in which a mutated form of hemoglobin distorts the red blood cells into a crescent shape at low oxygen levels. It is most common among those of African descent. |
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What is the difference between a “carrier” and a person afflicted with “disease”? |
The difference between being a carrier and having a disease is this: Carriers have inherited just one unusual gene from one parent People with a disease have inherited two unusual genes, one from each parent |
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What is sex-linked inheritance? Name the examples given in lecture and lab |
1. the acquisition of characters or qualities by transmission from parent to offspring. 2. that which is transmitted from parent to offspring. |
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Sex-influenced traits are from genes that are on autosomal chromosomes (ones that aren't the sex chromosomes), but their expression can be dependent upon one's gender. The example I found (listed in the sources below) cites the example of hormones. The levels of various hormones in the body differ between genders, and if there is a gene that is more strongly expressed in the presence or absence of one of these specific hormones, then that trait is said to be influenced by the individual's sex. |
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What is autosomal inheritance? Name the examples given in lecture and lab |
a pattern of inheritance in which the transmission of traits depends on the presence or absence of certain alleles on the autosomes. The pattern may be dominant or recessive, and males and females are usually affected with equal frequency. The majority of hereditary disorders are the result of a defective gene on an autosome. |
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What is Fragile X syndrome? What are the characteristics of this syndrome? |
Fragile X syndrome is a genetic condition that causes a range of developmental problems including learning disabilities and cognitive impairment. Usually, males are more severely affected by this disorder than females. Most males and about half of females with fragile X syndrome have characteristic physical features that become more apparent with age. These features include a long and narrow face, large ears, a prominent jaw and forehead, unusually flexible fingers, flat feet, and in males, enlarged testicles (macroorchidism) after puberty. |
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Evolution |
the process by which different kinds of living organisms are thought to have developed and diversified from earlier forms during the history of the earth. |
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Microevolution |
Microevolution is the change in allele frequencies that occur over time within a population. This change is due to four different processes: mutation, selection (natural and artificial), gene flow, and genetic drift. |
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Macroevolution |
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Population |
all the inhabitants of a particular town, area, or country. |
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Gene pool |
the stock of different genes in an interbreeding population. |
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Natural selection |
the process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring. The theory of its action was first fully expounded by Charles Darwin and is now believed to be the main process that brings about evolution. |
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Adaptation |
the action or process of adapting or being adapted. |
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The fossil record |
The totality of fossilized artifacts and their placement within the earth's rock strata. It provides information about the history of life on earth, for instance what the organisms look like, where and when they live, how they evolved, etc. |
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Homologous structures |
A homologous structure is an example of an organ or bone that appears in different animals, underlining anatomical commonalities demonstrating descent from a common ancestor. In other words, it's when very different animals have bones that appear very similar in form or function and seem to be related. |
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Hominid |
a primate of a family ( Hominidae ) that includes humans and their fossil ancestors. |
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Bipedalism |
Bipedalism is a form of terrestrial locomotion where an organism moves by means of its two rear limbs or legs. |
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Describe the idea of common descent |
common descent if they have a common ancestor. There is strong evidence that all living organisms on Earth are descended from a common ancestor |
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How old is the earth? When did life first evolve on earth? |
4.45 billion years old,Evidence suggests that life first evolved around 3.5 billion years ago. |
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The four types of nitrogen bases found in nucleotides are: adenine (A), thymine (T), guanine (G) and cytosine (C). The order, or sequence, of these bases determines what biological instructions are contained in a strand of DNA. |
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What is RNA, what are the different types of RNA and what do they do? |
ribonucleic acid, a nucleic acid present in all living cells. Its principal role is to act as a messenger carrying instructions from DNA for controlling the synthesis of proteins, although in some viruses RNA rather than DNA carries the genetic information. There are 4 types of RNA, each encoded by its own type of gene: mRNA - MessengerRNA: Encodes amino acid sequence of a polypeptide. tRNA - Transfer RNA: Brings amino acids to ribosomes during translation. rRNA - Ribosomal RNA: With ribosomal proteins, makes up the ribosomes, the organelles that translate the mRNA. |
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How are RNA and DNA nucleotides different? |
DNA is a long polymer with deoxyriboses and phosphate backbone. Having four different nitrogenous bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine. RNA is a polymer with a ribose and phosphate backbone. Four different nitrogenous bases: adenine, guanine, cytosine, and uracil. |
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What does a nucleotide consist of? |
A nucleotide consists of three things: A nitrogenous base, which can be either adenine, guanine, cytosine, or thymine (in the case of RNA, thymine is replaced by uracil). A five-carbon sugar, called deoxyribose because it is lacking an oxygen group on one of its carbons. One or more phosphate groups. |
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How many chromosomes do humans have? |
In humans, each cell normally contains 23 pairs of chromosomes, for a total of 46. Twenty-two of these pairs, called autosomes, look the same in both males and females. The 23rd pair, the sex chromosomes, differ between males and females |
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What is the first step in DNA replication? What is the final outcome? |
First, a so-called initiator protein unwinds a short stretch of the DNA double helix. DNA replication results in two identical daughter molecules each consisting of one old (original) strand and one newly-synthesized strand. The point where separation of the DNA occurs is called the replication fork. |
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What is the shape of a DNA molecule? |
double helix, shaped like a twisted ladder. |
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Be able to list and define human impacts we discussed in lecture. What is HIPPO? |
HIPPO stands for Habitat Destruction, Invasive Species, Population, Pollution, Overharvesting |
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Define sustainability. |
sustainability is how biological systems remain diverse and productive. Long-lived and healthy wetlands and forests are examples of sustainable biological systems. In more general terms, sustainability is the endurance of systems and processes. |
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What is the problem with disposable bottled water use? |
450 years. |
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What percentage of species are found in the rainforest? |
Covering less than 2 percent of the Earth's total surface area, the world's rainforests are home to 50 percent of the Earth's plants and animals. |
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the average American used 167 disposable water bottles, but only recycled 38 |
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What are GHGs? Name the two we discussed in lecture |
The primary greenhouse gases in the Earth's atmosphere are water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, nitrous oxide, and ozone. |
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What percentage of Americans are considered overweight? |
66% |
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What are the health consequences of obesity? |
Coronary heart disease Type 2 diabetes Cancers (endometrial, breast, and colon) Hypertension (high blood pressure) Dyslipidemia (for example, high total cholesterol or high levels of triglycerides) Stroke Liver and Gallbladder disease Sleep apnea and respiratory problems Osteoarthritis (a degeneration of cartilage and its underlying bone within a joint) |
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What chronic disease is increasing with obesity? |
Cardiovascular disease |
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What is BMI? Is it 100% reliable? |
Body mass index (BMI): a formula for weight assessment based on a weight-to-height relationship |
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What factors contribute to obesity? |
Physical activity 25% of adults in United States never engage in exercise Keys to successful fitness: enjoyment habit priority Food used as a reward, Comfort foods Social ritual Clock as a guide for “time to eat” |
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What genes affect obesity and how? |
Heredity & Genes Genes set metabolic rate and influence how the body handles calories Specific obesity genes Ob gene - disrupt the “Ive had enough to eat” signal GAD 2 –increase chemical that boosts appetite Ethnic background influences weight |
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What is BMR? |
Basal metabolic rate (BMR), and the closely related resting metabolic rate (RMR), is the rate of energy expenditure by humans and other birds and mammals (endotherms) at rest, and is often reported in units of kJ per hour per kg body mass. |
