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157 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What question was Mendel trying to answer? |
What are the basic patterns in the transmission of traits from parents to offspring? |
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What were the two hypotheses formed to explain the transmission of traits in Mendels Time? |
Blending Inheritance Inheritance of acquired characteristics |
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Blending Inheritance |
The hypothesis that the traits seen in a mother and father blend together to form the traits of their offspring |
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Inheritance of Acquired characters |
The claim that traits present in parents are modified, through use, and passed on to their offspring in the modified form |
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Why did the garden pea serve as the best candidate for Mendel to study? |
The garden pea is inexpensive, easy to grow from see, have a short generation time, produce many seeds, and they also have easily recognizable differences in traits. This made it possible for him to collect data from a large number of individuals. |
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How did Mendel control the matings of peas? |
He made cross pollination happen by collecting pollen from one individual and giving it to an individual in which one of their sex organs had been removed. |
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How did Mendel prevent self fertilization? |
He removed the male reproductive organs from the peas before any pollen formed. |
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Gene |
A hereditary factor that influences a particular traits |
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Allele |
A form of gene; two alleles may be different |
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Genotype |
The listing of alleles in an organism;In diploids (humans and most plants) a genotype lists two alleles of each gene i.e.Rr |
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Phenotype |
The observable traits of an individual created through their genotypes |
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Pure Line |
Individuals of the same phenotype that, when crossed, always produce the sam offspring with the same phenotype, meaning they are homozygous of the gene in question. |
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Hybrid |
Offspring from crosses of homozygous parents with different genotypes, so the child is heterozygous |
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Reciprocal Cross |
A cross in which the phenotypes of the male and female are reversed compared the prior cross (This was to test if sex of parent that possessed he trait affected inheritance) |
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Testcross |
A cross between homozygous recessive individual and an individual with a dominant phenotype but an unknown genotype; Usually used to determine whether a parent with a dominant phenotype is homozygous or heterozygous |
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Autosomal |
Referring to a gene located on any non sex chromosome |
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What is a monohybrid cross and what resulted of Mendel's monohybrid cross? |
A monohybrid cross is the crossing of two individuals that differ in one trait. He found that with his peas, the first generation of peas were all of the same and round, but in the second generation, the wrinkled gene had shown back up. This |
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What is the meaning of the 3:1 ratio? |
The idea that for every 4 individuals, on average 3 had the dominant phenotype and one had the recessive phenotype |
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What did Mendels reciprocal cross show? |
That it makes no difference whether the genetic dominant for seed shape comes from the male gamete or the female gamete. |
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What did the F1 progeny in Mendels studies always show? |
The dominant trait |
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Particulate Inheritance |
Mendels theory that challenged blending inheritance or acquired, it stated that genes act as discrete entities that maintain their integrity |
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The principle of segregation |
Mendels reasoning that the two members of each gene pair must segregate, or separate into different gamete cells during the formation of eggs and sperm. This means that each gamete contains one allele of each gene |
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Dihybrid Cross |
A mating between two individuals bother heterozygous for two traits, so Rr and Rr |
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What was the purpose of Mendels Dihybrid Cross? What did it show? |
He did it in order to see whether two different traits are inherent or assorted independently, or if they would be transmitted together. The presence of 4 phenotypes show that they are not transmitted together. |
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What is the ratio of a Dihybrid Cross? What does this mean? |
9:3:3:1; four different phenotypes were present, and that they occur in these frequencies |
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Principle of Independent Assortment |
Alleles of different genes are transmitted independently of one another. |
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How does Meiosis explain segregation? |
The two members of a parents gene pair segregate into different gametes because homologous chromosomes separate during meiosis 1. |
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Locus |
Where genes are located on a chromosome |
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Chromosome theory of inheritance |
If alleles of different genes are located on different chromosomes, they assort independently, of one another, and then over meiotic divisions, four types of gametes will be produced in equal proportion |
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Wild Type |
The organism possessing the most common phenotype for each trait |
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At what phase of Meiosis do homologous chromosomes separate? |
Anaphase 1 |
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In Meiosis, What is responsible for independent assortment? |
Alleles of different genes go to gametes independently because because pairs of homologous chromosomes line up randomly at metaphase |
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Linkage |
The tendency of particular alleles of different genes to be inherited together. |
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what does it mean for genes to be linked? |
they are located on the same chromosome |
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Do linked genes always stay linked? |
Not if recombination occurs, or crossing over |
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What makes an individual recombinant? |
They have a different combination of alleles on their chromosomes than their parents, suggesting crossing over must have occured. |
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Why is it helpful to know the location of genes on a chromosome? |
To map the location of genes that cause diseases |
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When is crossing over more likely to occur? |
When genes are further away from each other on a chromosome, the more likely a crossover is to occur. |
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Multiple Alleleism |
When an organism has more than two alleles of the same gene (Like blood types) |
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Polymorphic |
When there are more than two distinct phenotypes are present because of multiple alleles |
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Codominance |
The simultaneous expression of the phenotype associated with each allele i.e. AB; they are both dominant and both expressed in the phenotype of blood type |
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Incomplete Dominance |
When heterozygotes have a phenotype that is between the two different homozygous parents |
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What are the three possible dominance relationships between different alleles? |
Complete, Incomplete, and Codominance |
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Gene-by-environment interaction |
Refers to the way that the environment can change the phenotype i.e. PKU- a disease in which one does not posses the enzyme to metabolize phenylalanine. This can make it accumulate in the system, and the accumulation of this and other molecules can cause retardation. But if one is just placed on a low phenylalanine diet, they can avoid the phenotype of mental retardation |
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gene by gene interaction |
One trait is influenced by the alleles of two or more different genes |
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Discrete Traits |
Traits that are clearly different from one another i.e. round/wrinkled |
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Quantitative traits. What about their distribution is significant? |
traits in which individuals differ by degree, like height. When the different phenotypes of these traits are plotted on a histogram, it is normally distributed |
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Polygenic Inheritance |
When each gene adds a small amount to the value of the phenotype, i.e. the quantitative trait of wheat germ color, in whit a white allele ads some, red allele adds some, and the slightly darker allele adds some to form the phenotypic color. |
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Pleiotropy
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A single gene affects many traits |
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Mode of transmission |
Describes the trait as autosomal or sex linked and gives the type dominance of the allele |
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How do doctors find the mode of transmission |
Through the construction of a pedigree. or a family tree of the affected or unaffected individuals |
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Free Energy |
The amount of energy available to do work |
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Kinetic Energy |
The energy of motion |
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Potential Energy |
the amount of energy in a molecule due to its position |
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First Law of Thermodynamics |
States that energy cannot be created, nor destroyed, it simply changes form |
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Second Law of Thermodynamics |
States that the degree of disorder in the universe is always increasing |
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Enthalpy |
The total energy of a molecule (Represented by H) |
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Entropy |
Amount of disorder in a system |
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Exothermic |
A reaction in which heat is released and the product has less potential energy than the reactants. |
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Endothermic |
The heat energy is taken up and the products have higher potential energy |
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Gibbs Free Energy change |
the equation in which determines whether a reaction is spontaneous by assessing the combined contributions of changes of heat and disorder |
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What is the equation for Change in free energy |
^G=^H-T^S |
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What is entropy symbolized by? |
S |
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What is represented by H? |
The total energy, or enthalpy in a molecule |
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When is a reaction spontaneous? |
When G, or the free energy is less than zero |
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Exergonic |
Spontaneous reactions |
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Endergonic |
non spontaneous |
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The number of collisions that occur to enable a chemical reaction is due to what two factors? |
Temperature and Concentration |
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What happens when the concentration of reactants is high? |
More collisions should occur and make the reaction quicker |
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When the temperature is higher, what does it mean for a reaction? |
reactions will move faster and collide more frequently |
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Where do endergonic reactions get their energy for chemical reactions? |
By energetic coupling, or using the energy released from exergonic reactions to drive it |
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What two ways does energetic coupling occur? |
Through the transfer of high-energy electrons or the transfer of a phosphate group |
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How is high energy transferred? What is this process called? |
through electrons which are lost of gained through reduction oxidation reactions |
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Oxidation |
The loss of electrons |
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Reduction |
Gain of electrons |
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What can happen during a redox reaction? |
an electron can be transferred completely from one atom to another, or an electron can simply shift its position in a covalent bond |
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What is the main chemical energy carrier of the cell? |
ATP( Adenosine Triphosphate) |
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Respiration |
The way that organisms obtain their energy by breaking down the compounds they consume. o do this, said organisms allow their carbon and hydrogen compounds to combine with oxygen in the environment to produce carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O). |
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Metabolism |
The way that the food is broken down through a series of biochemical reactions |
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Pathways |
The groups of different chemical reactions that help to metabolize food |
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Metabolic Pathway |
The group of chemical reactions in metabolizing in which each intermediate is used in the next step |
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Catabolic Pathways |
The biological processes in which cells break down food by breaking down food into smaller molecules, in turn releasing energy. |
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Anabolic Pathways |
The process in which the energy made from catabolic pathways is used to build new and larger molecules |
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Flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD) |
An electon acceptor that is reduced by two electrons accompanied by two protons, then is able to donate the high energy electrons to other molecules. This makes it an electron carrier that can reduce. |
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Nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD) |
An electron carriers that is reduced by two hydrogens, but releases one into the environment |
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What happens when ATP interacts with a water molecule? |
The bond between the outermost phosphate is broken, and ADP is formed and an inorganic phosphate P |
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Substrate |
The molecule that receives the phosphate that is tranferred through the energy from ATP |
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When ATP is the donor of a phosphate, what type of reaction is it? |
Exergonic |
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Active Substrate |
When the potential energy of a reactant is increased through phosphorylation |
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How are enzymes catalysts? |
They bring substrates together in a precise orientation that make reactions more likely |
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What does colliding in the precise orientation allow in terms of chemical reactions? |
Electrons to react between molecules |
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Induced Fit |
The changing of the shape of an enzyme in order to better fit the substrate |
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Transition State |
When the degree of interaction between a substrate and its enzyme increases and reaches a maximum |
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What is needed to reach the transition state? |
A certain amount of kinetic energy called Activation Energy |
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Why is the free energy high in the transition state? |
Because it is the state in which the bonds have just broken and are to form new ones, so they are destabilized |
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If the transition state is very unstable, what does this mean in terms of energy required for the reaction? |
The reaction would need more energy in order to stabilize the reactants, meaning more activation energy and a slower reaction |
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How do enzymes lower the activation energy needed for a reaction? |
By stabilizing the transition state with the interactions between the amino acid R groups |
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How do R-groups stabilize the transition state of a reaction? |
They may form short lived covalent bonds that assist with the transfer of atoms, or they may allow reactants to gain or lose a proton more readily |
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What are the three steps of enzyme catalysis? |
Initiation-Enzyme orients the reactants precisely as they bind to active site in enzyme Transition State Facilitation- The transition state between reactants is stabilized by the interactions between the substrate and the R groups, thus lowering the activation energy needed for the reaction Termination-The reactants unbind from the active site and the enzyme returns to its original formation |
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What is meant by the idea of "saturation kinetics" regarding the speed of reactions? |
It is the idea that at some point active sites on enzymes cannot accept the substrates any faster, so there is a maximum speed of the rate of the reaction, no matter how large the concentration of the substrate is. |
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What are the three atoms or molecules that help enzymes to function? |
Cofactors, Coenzymes, Prosthetic Groups |
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Cofactors |
An inorganic molecule bound to the enzyme which helps to stabilize the transition state and speed up a reaction |
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Coenzymes |
Types of cofactors organic molecules( molecules that contain carbon) that bind to enzymes to help them function. Many are derived from vitamins, and sit at the active site and aid in recognizing, attracting, or repulsing a substrate. They can also shuttle chemical groups from one enzyme to another enzyme
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Prosthetic groups |
Cofactors that bind tightly to enzymes, can be inorganic or organic, and are attached by a covalent bonds. |
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What does it mean when a protein is denatured?
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when a certain temperature is reached that causes a protein to fall apart and lose function |
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What two things affect the functioning of enzymes? What does each factor effect specifically? |
Temperature and pH Temperature affects the movement of substrates pH affects the enzymes shape and reactivity |
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What is an enzymes function dependent on? |
Its folded structure |
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What is an enzyme regulated by? |
A change in its structure |
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Modification by regulatory molecules that control enzymes through non covalent bonds are considered what kind of modifications? |
"Reversible" |
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What are the two types of reversible modifications? |
Competetive inhibition and Allosteric regulation |
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Competitive Inhibition |
The molecule is similar in size and shape to the enzyme and inhibits catalysis by binding in the active site where the substrate would otherwise bind |
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Allosteric Regulation |
Refers to the inhibition of catalyzes when a regulatory molecule binds at a location of an enzyme that changes the shape of an enzyme in some way that available or unavailable to the substrate |
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What does phosphorylation do to an enzyme? |
It can cause the changing of its shape which can function like a switch to activate an enzyme |
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What is feedback Inhibition? When does it occur? |
When an enzyme in a pathway is inhibited by the product of the reaction sequence. This is essentially a way for the enzyme to stop itself from making the product when it no longer needs to. It inhibits itself by attatching the product to the first enzyme, changing its shape so the initial substrate cannot bind to the active site |
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Bioremediation |
treatment that uses naturally occurring organisms to break down hazardous substances into less toxic or non toxic substances”. |
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Retro evolution |
The reputation of the backward step of having a new reaction step to produce an original substrate in order to keep the original enzyme from depleting its substrate completely. This creates metabolic pathways. |
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What happens when an extremely high temperature results in extremely high enzyme movement? |
The Enzyme can be denatured |
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What is happening to an enzyme when it reaches its maximum speed of reaction? |
At high substrate concentrations, all available enzyme molecules are working at maximal speed and are unable to further increase the rate of reaction. |
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How is phosphorylation catalyzed? What effect does phosphorylation have on enzymes? |
By enzymes. Phosphorylation can serve to both activate and inactivate enzymes. It can also use cellular energy in the process depending on the reaction. Enzymes can reduce the amount of energy required to do this via catalyzation of the reaction. |
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How do high temperatures speed chemical reactions? |
Heat causes the reactants to move faster and collide more often. |
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What is the covalent modification that affects enzyme activity? |
Phosphorylation |
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In a pedigree how is a woman who is a carrier represented? |
A half filled circle |
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How is much of the glucose used to make ATP produced? |
By plants and other photosynthetic species |
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How do animals, fungi, and other bacteria get their glucose? |
when the photosynthetic species decompose or are eaten |
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What do all organisms use glucose for? |
The synthesis of complex carbohydrates, fats, and other energy rich compounds. |
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What two processes are used by glucose to produce ATP? |
Cellular Respiration and Fermentation |
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What happens when glucose is oxidized? |
some of the potential energy stored in its chemical bonds is converted into kinetic energy in the form of heat and then that heat energy is used to make ATP |
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What does respiration result in? |
The complete oxidation of glucose into CO2 and water |
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How does fermentation differ from respiration? |
The glucose is not fully oxidized, rather small organic molecules are produced as waste. This means that it does not produce as much energy as cellular respiration does |
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What are the four steps of cellular respiration? |
Glycolysis Pyruvate Processing Citric Acid Cycle Electron transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation |
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Cellular Respiration |
Reactions that use electrons harvested from high energy molecules (like glucose) to produce ATP via an electron transport chain |
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Glycolysis |
One 6 carbon molecule of glucose is broken down into two molecules of three carbon compound pyruvate. During this process, ATP is produced from ADP and NAD is reduced (NAD is a coenzyme that releases hydrogen) |
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Pyruvate Processing |
The second step of cellular respiration in which pyruvate is processed to release one molecule of CO2 and the remaining carbons (2) are used to form Acetyl CoA, or citric acid. This results in more NAD being reduced to NADH as well. |
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Where does glycolysis occur? |
In the cytoplasm of eukaryotes and prokaryotes |
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Citric Acid Cycle |
the third step of cellular respiration in which Acetyl CoA is oxidized to two molecules of CO2. More ATP and NADH are produced, along with FAD being reduced to form FADH2 |
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Electron Transport and Oxidative Phosphorylation |
The electrons from NADH and FADH2 are moved through proteins called an electron transport chains. This produces energy through redox reactions and is used to create a proton gradient across a membrane. This allows protons to flow back across the membrane used to form ATP. |
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Oxidative Phosphorylation |
The phosphorylation of ATP using the oxidation of NADH and FADH2 |
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What other carbon compounds can be used in catabolic pathways to produce ATP? |
Fats- they are macromolecules of glycerol which can be converted into Acetyl CoA Proteins- The amino acids groups can be removed and the remaining carbon compoundscan be converted into pyruvate, Acetyl CoA, and other intermediates. |
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What is the starting point for anabolic pathways that synthesis fatty acids? |
Acetyl CoA |
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homeostasis |
The cells ability to maintain its internal environment under different environmental conditions through catabolic and anabolic pathways |
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Where do the 10 reactions of glycolysis occur? |
In the Cytosol |
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How does glycolysis Begin? |
By using ATP to phosphorylate glucose to form a glucose 6 phosphate, then that phosphate is rearranged to form a fructose 6 phosphate. From there, a fructose-1, 6 diphosphate is formed. It begins with an energy investment of 2 ATP's that become ADP when phosphorylated |
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When is the energy payoff phase of glycolysis? |
When the reduction of 2 NAD molecules produce two ATP molecules |
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For each molecule of glucose processed, the net yield is what? |
2 molecules of NADH, Two of ATP, and two of Pyruvate |
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Enzyme catalyzed reactions that result in ATP are known as what? |
Substrate level phosphorylations |
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During glycolysis where does the energy to produce ATP come from? |
Phosphorylation, not a protein gradient |
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what is the key glycotic enzyme inhibitor? What does it do? |
Phosphofructokinase- it catalyzes reaction 3 in the 10 step sequence of glycolysis, which forms fructose 1, 6 biphosphate |
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How does phosphofructokinase inhibit glycolysis? |
If ATP concentrations are high, then there is a regulatory site on the enzyme in which the ATP will bind to, and if that happens, then the enzyme will change shape and not allow glycolysis to go past step 3. ATP acts as an allosteric regulator in this enzyme. |
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What is the result of glycolysis? |
Two 3 carbon pyruvate Molecules, along with a net total of two ATP and two NADH |
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What happens during pyruvate processing? |
Pyruvate is oxidized to acetyl CoA which is a coenzyme |
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Where does pyruvate processing take place? |
The mitochondrial matrix |
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How is Acetyl CoA formed? |
When pyruvate reacts with a compound called Coenzyme A (CoA) through a series of steps to form Acetyl CoA. These steps include the pyruvate being oxidized, releasing CO2, and NAD+ is reduced to NADH. What is remaining is transferred to the coenzyme. |
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Where does the formation of CoA occur? |
In the pyruvate dehydrogenase enzyme complex located in the mitochondrial matrix |
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In pyruvate processing, what goes in and what comes out? |
Pyruvate, CoA, and NAD + go in, and acetyl CoA come out |
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The citric acid cycle does what? |
Completes the oxidation of glucose by having Acetyl CoA go in and carbon dioxide, NADH,FADH2, and ATP come out |
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What is produced by the citric acid cycle? |
3 molecules of NADH, one of FADH2, and guanosine triphosphate |
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Guanosine Triphosphate |
ATP when phosphorylated by a substrate |
