Bio Exam 3

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Evolution

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Change in frequency of alleles in a population over time

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Macroevolution

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The major changes in the history of life

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Evident in the fossil record

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Paleontology-the study of fossils
Relative age-reveals sequence of evolution
Absolute age-determined with radiometric dating

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speciation)

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origin of new species
Generates biological diversity

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Exaptation

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when a structure evolves in one context but becomes adapted for another function

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Origin of evolutionary novelty

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Wings on bird, large brain of humans
Adaption of old structures for new functions

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Mass extinctions

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Make room for new species

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microevolution

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is the generation to generation changes in allele frequency within a single population

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Charles Darwin

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Made his voyage on the Beagle for 5 yrs
Published On the Origin of Species
His idea: survival of the fittest, aka natural selection
Went to the Galapagos Islands

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Galapagos Islands named

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after the Galapagos tortoise found there

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Systematics-

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the study of the evolutionary relationships of organisms, past and present

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Fossil Record

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We can make a basic time-line for evolution using fossils

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Biogeography

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Study of geographic distribution of species

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Comparative Anatomy

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Comparison of body structures between different species

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Homology:

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Animals sharing a common ancestor will have similar anatomy, even if it functions differently.

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Comparative Embryology

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Species will have very similar embryonic development depending on how closely they are related

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Molecular Biology

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DNA can be sequenced to determine how similar organisms are and how recently they may have shared a common ancestor
Proteins can also give similar information
When two species have nucleotide sequences that are the same we often assume them to have come from a common ancestor

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Genetic drift

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Bottleneck effect
Founder effect

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Gene flow-

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genetic exchange with another population

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Change frequency of alleles:

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Genetic drift
Gene flow-
Branching vs. non-branching
Natural selection

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Individual variation

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Variation between individuals in a population, has to do with inheritance

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Natural selection allows

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organisms which are best suited for their environment to survive, thus increasing the frequency of the beneficial gene within the population

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Overproduction and competition

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Interspecies, intraspecies

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Unequal reproductive success

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Sexual dimorphism
sexual selection

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Sexual dimorphism-

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males and females look different

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Sexual selection-

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where inherited characteristics determine mating preferences

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directional selection

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a population moves towards one extreme

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disruptive selection

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break in middle of extremes, more types on either extreme and less in the middle

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stabilizing selection

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very centered, stabilized

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Biological species concept defines a species as:

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A group of populations that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.

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Reproductive barriers

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Prezygotic barriers:
Post-zygotic barriers:

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Prezygotic barriers:

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temporal isolation
Mechanical isolation
Habitat isolation
Behavioral isolation
Gametic isolation

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Post-zygotic barriers:

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Decreased hybrid viability
Reduced hybrid fertility

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Allopatric speciation:

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separation due to geographic barrier

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Sympatric speciation:

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within a population due to a factor other than geographic barrier

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Punctuated equilibrium model:

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an abrupt episode of speciation with no transitional stages is followed by long periods of time with little change.

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Graduated model: .

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Species diverge little-by-little until they are distinct from each other. The fossil record would show intermediate forms

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Evo-devo

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the study of the evolution of developmental processes in multicellular organisms

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Homeotic genes regulate:

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When structures develop
How structures develop
Where structures develop

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Taxonomy

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identification, naming, and classification of species
Binomial nomenclature-genus and species

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Phylogenic trees:

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used to determine predict evolutionary history of species and to classify

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Convergent evolution

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Analogous structures-
--Development of similar shapes that have different origins

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taxonomic levels

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domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, species

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domains

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prokarya, eukarya, achaea

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Kingdoms

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plants, animals, fungi, protists, monera

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Fungi

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Euk, multi, absorb, nonmotile, sexual

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Protists

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eukaryotic catch-all group

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Monera

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(mostly bacteria) Prokaryotic, unicellular, absorb or photosynthesize, motile or nonmotile, asexual

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4 stage hypothesis of life’s origin

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Stage 1: Abiotic synthesis of organic monomers
Stage 2: Abiotic synthesis of polymers
Stage 3: Formation of pre-cells
Stage 4: Origin of self-replicating molecules

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Theory of endosymbiosis

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Cells have some organelles that evolved from prokaryotes
Examples: mitochondria and chloroplasts

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Prokaryotes

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Far outnumber eukaryotes, typically much smaller than euk.
Can cause disease
Can be beneficial

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Pathogens:

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Disease causing organisms

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Exotoxins-

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poisonous proteins secreted by bacteria

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Endotoxins:

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poisonous secretions from the outer membrane of certain bacteria.

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prokaryotes reproduce by

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Binary fission

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endospores

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prokaryotes form thick called, protective cells that are protected within cells exposed to unfavorable conditions

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prokaryote nutrition
use CO2, light

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photoautotrophs

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prokaryote nutrition
use CO2, chemical

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chemoautotrophs

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prokaryote nutrition
use organic compounds, light

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photo-heterotrophs

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prokaryote nutrition
use organic compounds, chemical

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chemoheterotrophs

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bioterrorism

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Use of harmful microorganisms as weapons

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Archaea live...

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live in moderate environments, but Archaea are famous for being Extremophiles

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Protists classification

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protozoa, slime mold, algae

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Protozoa –

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Protist
feed like animals (heterotrophic)

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Slime molds-

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feed like fungi (absorption)

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Algae-

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feed like plants (photosynthetic) (Seaweeds – Overgrown Algae)

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ciliate

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many small, hair-like structures used for motion

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Flagellates

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have long, whip-like “tails”

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Amoeba

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use pseudopodia to reach out, hook on, then pull themselves forward

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Diatoms-

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glossy walls, look like a kaleidoscope

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Green algae-

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of protists, these are most closely related to plants

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Seaweeds

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- large marine algae

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Order of evolution: of plants

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bryophytes->ferns->gymnosperms->angiosperms

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Bryophytes:

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nonvascular plants
2 forms, alteration of generations

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Ferns:

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seedless, vascular plants
Sperm have flagella and must swim through film of water to fertilize eggs.
did not decay completely, and now we have fossil fuels!

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Gymnosperms:

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naked-seed, vascular plants
life cycles on dry land

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Angiosperms:

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flowering vascular plants, seed within a fruit

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alteration of generations for bryophytes

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1: gametophyte-reproduce by using sperm and eggs; haploid
2: sporophyte-grows out of gametophyte as a stalk w/ a capsule at its tip; diploid

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fungi

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decomposing and absorbing nutrients from other compounds

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symbiosis, different forms

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Living together
Mutualism-living together
Commesalism-one organism benefits, the other is unaffected
Parasitism-live inside

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Bilateral symmetry:

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Mirror image

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Radial symmetry

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symmetry all around

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Invertebrates

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Porifera, cnidaria, mollusks, platyhelminthes, annelida, nematoda, arthropoda

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porifera

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sponges, looks like sac with holes
invertebrate

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cnidaria

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coral, sea anemone, hydra, jellyfish invertebrate
radial symmetry, body tissues, tentacles with stinging cells
sac with a gastrovascular cavity

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polyp

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stays in one place, cnidaria

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medusa

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floating, moves around, cnidaria

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mollusks

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soft bodied animals, usually have a hard shell
3 main parts-muscular foot, visceral mass for internal organs, mantle secretes shell

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groups of mollusks, what each are

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gastropods-spiral shell
bivalves-shell divided into 2 halves hinged together
cephalopods-lack external shell, built for speed and agility

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platyhelmines

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flatworms
simplest bilateral animals
parasites or free living in marine, freshwater or damp habitats

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Annelida, 3 types

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body segmentation, complete digestive tract
earthworms, polychaetes, leeches

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earthworms

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eat their way through the soil

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polychaetes

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marine worms with segmental appendages for movement, gas exchange

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leeches

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typically free-living carnivores but with some bloodsucking forms

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nematoda

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roundworms, parasites
cylindrical, tapered
important decomposers

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arthropoda

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arachnids, crustaceans, millipedes/centipedes, insects
jointed appendages, segmented bodies, exoskeletons

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arachnids

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4 pairs of legs, terrestrial, spiders, scorpions, mites

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crustaceans

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nearly all aquatic, multiple pairs of specialized appendages
crabs, lobsters, crayfish

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millipedes and centipedes

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similar segments over most of body

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insects

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3 body segments: head, thorax, abdomen
flight, outnumber all other life forms combined
metamorphosis

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echinodermata

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sea star, sea urchin, sea cucumber
lack body segments
have an endoskeleton
have a water vascular system

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morph

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form

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homo

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alike

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vestigi

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trace

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allo

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other

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patric

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country

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ex

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beyond

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macro

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large

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paedo

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child

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morphosis

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shaping

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sym

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together

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nom

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name

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con

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together

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archae

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ancient

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bi

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2

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bio

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life

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genesis

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origin

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endo

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inner

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exo

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outside

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patho

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disease

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protos

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first

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zoan

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animal

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sym

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together

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bacill

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a little stick

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dinos

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whirling

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flagell

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whip

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photo

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light

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planktos

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wandering

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api

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tip

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hetero

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different

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pseudo

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false

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pod

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foot

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spiro

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spiral

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angion

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a container

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sperma

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seed

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bryo

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moss

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phyte

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plant

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gamet

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a wife or husband

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gymno

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naked

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myco

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fungus

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rhiza

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root

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sporo

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seed

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stoma

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mouth

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ceph(al)

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head

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Hypha

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branching cell of a fungus

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mycelium

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vegetable part of a fungus, mass of hyphae