Bio Exam 2

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Meiosis

Back 1

the process that creates gamates (egg and sperm) for reproduction

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Prophase 1

Back 2

Early prophase
Homologs pair.
Crossing over occurs.
Late prophase
Chromosomes condense.
Spindle forms.
Nuclear envelope fragments.

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Metaphase 1

Back 3

Homolog pairs align
along the equator of the cell.

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Anaphase 1

Back 4

Homologs separate and
move to opposite poles.

Sister chromatids remain
Attached at their centromeres.

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Telophase 1

Back 5

Nuclear envelopes reassemble.

Spindle disappears.

Cytokinesis divides cell into two.

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Meiosis II

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produces gametes with
one copy of each chromosome and thus one copy of each gene.
separates sister chromatids.

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Prophase 2

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Nuclear envelope fragments.

Spindle forms.

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Metaphase 2

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Chromosomes align
along equator of cell.

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Anaphase 2

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Sister chromatids separate
and move to opposite poles.

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Telophase 2

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Nuclear envelope assembles.

Chromosomes decondense.

Spindle disappears.

Cytokinesis divides cell into two.

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Result of Meiosis

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Gametes

Four haploid cells

One copy of each chromosome

One allele of each gene

Different combinations of
alleles for different genes along the chromosome

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Meiosis 1

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separates homologous chromosomes.

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spindle

Back 13

achromatic structure, composed of microtubules, along which the chromosomes are distributed in mitosis and meiosis.

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centrosome

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A small region of cytoplasm adjacent to the nucleus that contains the centrioles and serves to organize microtubules.

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centromere

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The most condensed and constricted region of a chromosome, to which the spindle fiber is attached during mitosis.

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autosome

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A chromosome that is not a sex chromosome.

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sex chromosome

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Either of a pair of chromosomes, usually designated X or Y, in the germ cells of most animals and some plants, that combine to determine the sex and sex-linked characteristics of an individual, with XX resulting in a female and XY in a male in mammals.

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gamate

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A reproductive cell having the haploid number of chromosomes, especially a mature sperm or egg capable of fusing with a gamete of the opposite sex to produce the fertilized egg.

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zygote

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The cell formed by the union of two gametes, especially a fertilized ovum before cleavage.

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somatic cell

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Any cell of a plant or an animal other than a germ cell. Also called body cell.
46 chromosomes. a non sex cell

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diploid

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Having a pair of each type of chromosome, so that the basic chromosome number is doubled

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haploid

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Having the same number of sets of chromosomes as a germ cell or half as many as a somatic cell. Having a single set of chromosomes.

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function of cell divsion

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Reproduction

Growth

Repair

Development

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G1

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Cells increase in size this stage, produce RNA and synthesize protein. An important cell cycle control mechanism activated during this period ensures that everything is ready for DNA synthesis.

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G0

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There are times when a cell will leave the cycle and quit dividing. This may be a temporary resting period or more permanent. An example of the latter is a cell that has reached an end stage of development and will no longer divide (e.g. neuron).

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S

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To produce two similar daughter cells, the complete DNA instructions in the cell must be duplicated. DNA replication occurs during this phase.

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G2

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During the gap between DNA synthesis and mitosis, the cell will continue to grow and produce new proteins. At the end of this gap is another control checkpoint (to determine if the cell can now proceed to enter M (mitosis) and divide.

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M

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Cell growth and protein production stop at this stage in the cell cycle. All of the cell's energy is focused on the complex and orderly division into two similar daughter cells. much shorter than interphase, lasting perhaps only one to two hours.there is a Checkpoint in the middle that ensures the cell is ready to complete cell division.

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How sexual reproduction creates variation in 3 ways

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recombination

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asexual reproduction

Back 30

a single individual passes along copies of all its genes to its offspring. quick and guaranteed. no variation

Single-celled eukaryotes.
Some multicellular eukaryotes

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sexual reproduction

Back 31

results in greater variation among offspring than does asexual reproduction.
Two parents give rise to offspring
that have unique combinations of genes.
provides variation but its not a guaranteed process.

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Seminiferous Tubules

Back 32

125 meter long tubes where sperm are manufactured

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Testes

Back 33

male gonads, packed with seminiferous tubules

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Epididymis

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tightly coiled tubes that leads from each testis, where sperm cells mature and are stored

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Vas Deferens

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carries sperm to the urethra, passing through the prostate gland

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Urethra

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carries sperm and urine out through the penis

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Prostate Gland

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produces a fluid that activates the sperm to swim

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Seminal Vesicles

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secrete fructose (a sugar that provides the sperm with energy) and prostaglandins (help sperm and oocyte meet)

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Bulbourethral Glands

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secrete an alkaline mucus that coats the urethra

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Ovaries

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At birth, each ovary contains about 1 million oocytes
Each ovary contains oocyte at different stages of maturity
Each oocyte is surrounded by follicle cells that nourish it
At ovulation, the ovary releases the most mature oocyte

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Fallopian tube/oviduct

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Tubes that carry the oocyte from the ovary to the uterus
These tubes have cilia, small hairs that move the oocyte down the tube
Fertilization occurs in the fallopian tube

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Uterus

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Place where a fertilized ovum will develop (also called the womb)
Prepares each month for the arrival of a fertilized ovum by growing a layer of blood and tissue, which will be shed if an ovum does not implant

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cervix

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Lower end of the uterus that opens into the vagina

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Vagina

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tunnel to the opening of the vulva

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fertilization

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when sperm and egg meet in fallopian tube. becomes blastocyst 70-100 about 5 days after conception. cells- then becomes zygote

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cleavage

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30 Hours to third day

Mitotic cell division creates more cells.

Cells are called blastomeres. l

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blastula

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...

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contraceptives

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chemical- prevents the release of egg
barrier method- prevents egg and sperm from metting
surgery- prevents egg or sperm from being released
prevent embryo from implanting

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major causes of infertility

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.....

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types of infertility treatments

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...

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genetic testing

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...

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genetic testing 2

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...

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heterozygous

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two different alleles

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homozygous

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two identical alleles

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allele

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form of a gene

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genotype

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description of genetic make up

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phenotype

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description of trait

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true-breeding

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pure-bred. has no recessive traits

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aneuploidy

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abnormal number of chromosomes. most cases are fatal in humans

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monosomic

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only one chromosome

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trisomic

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three chromosomes

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co dominant

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occurs when two alleles affect the phenotype in separate, distinguishable ways.

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incomplete dominance

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where heterozygotes show a distinct intermediate phenotype, not seen in homozygotes.

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dominance

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when the allele becomes the phenotype

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recessive

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when the allele does not become the phenotype

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blood type

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A- AA- or Ai
AB-AB
B-BB or Bi
O- ii

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deletion

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removes a chromosome segment

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duplication

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repeats a chromosome segment

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infertility

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Defined as a couple having unprotected sex two times a week for 18 months and not getting pregnant

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major causes in women

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ovulation problems, antisperm secretions, blocked fallopian tubes, endometriosis

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major causes in men

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low sperm count, immobile sperm, antibodies against sperm

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infertiltiy soultions

Back 72

stimulating drugs-clomid
Hormone that prompts the brain to increase stimulation of ovaries
Causes maturation and ovulation of one or more ova
Induces ovulation in 85% of women who use it
Successful pregnancy rate about 40%
Rate of multiple pregnancies among Clomid users: 5-10%

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infertility soultions

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Oocytes, like sperm, can be stored frozen, although it is less successful.
Women can store their own oocytes, or use donated oocytes

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infertility solutions

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In artificial insemination, a doctor places donated sperm in a woman’s reproductive tract.

1790
first reported pregnancy from artificial insemination

1953
methods for freezing and storing sperm were developed

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infertility solutions

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For in vitro fertilization or IVF, a sperm fertilizes an oocyte in a culture dish.

Embryos are transferred to the oocyte donor’s uterus (or a surrogate’s uterus) for implantation.

1978 first IVF child born
15-20% success rate

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infertility solutions

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Intracytoplasmic sperm injection
ICSI allows conception in cases of low sperm count, abnormal sperm shape, sperm motility problems.

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embryo

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within the first 8 weeks of development

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fetus

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development from 9 weeks until birth

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morula

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Third to fourth day

Solid ball of 16 or more cells

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blastocyst/blastula

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The developing embryo becomes a
hollow ball of cells day 5th day through week 2

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Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis

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screening the embryo with genetic tests to see if it has problems.

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implantation.

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about a week after fertilization.

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stages of development. ???

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fertilization-becomes zygote. then clevage. then morula. then blastula. then blastocyst implants.

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genetic testing??

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amniocentesis, newborn screening,
can test for phenyketonuria (PKU).

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laws of probability

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3:1 ratio in F2 generation

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laws of segregation

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Organism contains two factors for each trait; factors segregate in formation of gametes; each gamete contains one factor for each trait.

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survivable types of aneuploidy

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Males with an extra Y chromosome (XYY) tend to somewhat taller than average, but are otherwise normal
Trisomy X (XXX), which occurs once in every 2000 live births, produces healthy females.
Monosomy X or Turner’s syndrome (X0), which occurs once in every 5000 births, produces immature females.
Klinefelter’s syndrome, an XXY male, occurs once in every 1000-2000 live births.
down syndrome

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multifactorial traits

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depends on genes and environment

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polygenic inheritance

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the additive effects of two or more genes on a single phenotypic character.

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mendelian inheritance

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controlled by a single gene

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virus

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DNA inside a capsid with a head, tail, and tail fiber.

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how viruses replicate

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DNA is injected into the cell and tells the cell to replicate. the capsid surrounding replicates as well and then surrounds the new DNA and exits the cell.

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are viruses alive?

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they are on the fence because they exhibit some but not all of living characteristics.

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viruses are specific

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they can only infect one or two types of cells.

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how do we fight viruses

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your body makes antibodies. which are created by contracting the virus or being vaccinated. vaccines or antiviral medications

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pathogen

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An agent of disease. A disease producer. The term pathogen most commonly is used to refer to infectious organisms. These include bacteria (such as staph), viruses (such as HIV), and fungi (such as yeast). Less commonly, pathogen refers to a noninfectious agent of disease such as a chemical.

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prokaryotes

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Relatively small (1/10 the size of other cells), and lack membrane-bound organelles, such as a nucleus. have a cell wall, flagella, capsule, plasma membrane, ribosomes, nucleoid
Lack true nuclei.
Lack other membrane-enclosed organelles.
Have cell walls exterior to their plasma membranes.

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shapes of bacteria

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Spherical (cocci)
Rod-shaped (bacilli)
Spiral (spirochetes)

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how do bacteria get nutrition?

Back 99

(photosynthesizer) photoautotroph- light self nourishment
chemoautotroph- chemical self nourishment- use chemical reactions and carbon dioxide
photoheterotroph- light another nourishment- use light but must get carbon from somewhere else
chemoheterotroph-chemical another nourishment- ingest organic molecules like glucose.

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how is bacteria helpful to humans?

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its in our digestive track to break down food, its in our food, they keep our mouth and other openings clean, helps break down organic waste and dead organisms. bio-remediation- use of organisms to remove pollutants from air and soil

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how does bacteria hurt humans?

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pathogenic bacteria produces poisons endotoxins-components of the bacteria's cells walls
exotoxins- poisenous protiens secreted by the cell.

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best defenses to bacteria

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sanitation
antibiotics
education

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antibiotic resistance

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drugs kill weakest first...then intermediate... then highly resistant. if drugs are stopped early it only kills easy ones and tough bacteria comes back stronger. evolution/ natural selection allows the strongest to survive.. becoming more and more resistant to drugs

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immunity

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active immunity- The production of antibodies against a specific agent by the immune system. Active immunity can be acquired in two ways:

by contracting an infectious disease -- such as, for example, chickenpox; or
by receiving a vaccination usually pe-- such as, for example, against polio.
passive immunity Passive immunity
Is acquired by receiving premade antibodies.
Passed through breastfeeding
Injection received prior to travel
Active immunity is the development of antibodies in response to stimulation by an antigen.
Passive immunity. Once formed, those antibodies can be removed from the host and transferred into another recipient where they provide immediate passive immunity.

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primary immune response

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Is acquired by receiving premade antibodies.
Passed through breastfeeding
Injection received prior to travel

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secondary immune response

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...

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allergies

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Allergies
Antigens
Are foreign substances that elicit an immune response.
Are abnormal sensitivities to antigens in the environment.
Allergens
Are antigens that cause allergies.

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cause of allergies

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People with allergies have an inherited (genetic) predisposition for developing hypersensitivity to inhaled and ingested substances (allergens) that are harmless to other people.

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what is an autoimmune disorder?

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The immune system turns against the body’s own molecules.

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non-specific external defenses

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skin, mucous membranes, secretions function is to keep pathogens and bacteria out.

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non-specific internal defenses

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white blood cells, defense proteins, the inflammatory response, macrophages(Type of white blood cell that engulfs pathogens), NK (natural killer) cells.- get rid of invaders

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specific response

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immune system-Consists of a large collection of cells that work together to present a specific response to infection. In addition to being specific, the immune system can “remember” antigens and react more promptly to second exposures to infection.

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lymphatic system

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The lymphatic system has two main functions:
Return tissue fluid to the circulatory system
Fight infection

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antigens/antibodies

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Antigens
Are foreign substances that elicit an immune response.
Antibodies
Are proteins found in blood plasma that attach to one particular kind of antigen and help counter its effects.

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lymphocytes

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Are white blood cells found most often in the lymphatic system.
Produce the immune response. There are two kinds of lymphocytes:
B cells, which develop in the bone marrow
T cells, which become specialized in the thymus

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how do vaccines work?

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Introduce a “safe” version of the pathogen, which stimulates the immune system to make B cells against that pathogen

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herd immunity

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describes a type of immunity that occurs when the vaccination of a portion of the population (or herd) provides protection to unprotected individuals.[1] Herd immunity theory proposes that, in diseases passed from person-to-person, it is more difficult to maintain a chain of infection when large numbers of a population are immune. The more immune individuals present in a population, the lower the likelihood that a susceptible person will come into contact with an infected individual.

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reasons to vacinate

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to eliminate the disease.

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concerns about vaccination

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causes autism...
there are things not goof to the body, like mercury. not natural

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role of placenta

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to bring blood of the fetus close to blood of the mother to allow oxygen, nurtient, and waste exchange