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153 Cards in this Set
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A process by which a constant internal environment is maintained despite changes in the external environment |
Homeostasis |
Monitors check range > Co-ordination Center > Regulator > Feedback |
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A homeostatic control mechanism where the end result of a chain of events acts to inhibit an earlier step in the chain |
Negative Feedback |
Regulator which makes adjustments to restore normalranges |
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Water is removed to join together macromolecules during this process |
Dehydration Synthesis |
- H + OH = H20 - Opposite of hydrolysis |
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Water is used to break down macromolecules during this process |
Hydrolysis |
- Opposite of dehydration synthesis |
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These are biological catalysts that act on and bind to substrate molecules at an active site |
Enzymes |
- Usually ends in "ase" - Allow for low temperature reactions by lowering the activation energy - have specific shape that allows only certain types of substratesto combine with it |
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What are the four main macromolecules |
- Carbohydrates - Lipids - Proteins - Nucleic Acids |
- Too large to be absorbed – body needs a way ofbreaking down these molecules and re-building them |
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Which macromolecule breaks down into Simple Sugars (Monomer) andPolysaccharides (Polymer) |
Carbohydrates |
- Most important energy source/storage for the body - Always contain carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen - Usually in same proportion: two atoms ofhydrogen and one atom of oxygen for every atomof carbon - Obtained from plantsOften ended in “ose” |
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This is a common type of carbohydrate that means "one sugar" |
Monosaccharides |
- Contains three to seven carbon atoms and correspondingnumber of hydrogen and oxygen atoms - Glucose, human blood sugar, energy source |
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This is a common type of carbohydrate that means "two sugars" |
Disaccharides |
- Assembled by dehydration synthesis and disassembled byhydrolysis - Sucrose, cane sugar = glucose and fructose |
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This is a common type of carbohydrate that means "many sugars" |
Polysaccharides |
- Long chains of glucose in plants as storage is starch - Animal storage is glycogen - Glycogen has more subunits of glucose than starch because it hasmore branches - Plant cell walls made of straight chains of glucose as cellulose |
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Which macromolecule breaks down into glycerol and fatty acids? |
Lipids |
- Insoluble in water - Functions as:energy storage - Immune response - Neural transmissions - Cushions body organs - Carriers of vitamins (A, D, E, K) - Synthesis of some hormones (testosterone/estrogen) - Insulates against the cold. |
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Which macromolecule breaks down into amino acids? |
Proteins |
- Structural component of the body/enzymes/antibodiesDisplay greater structural complexity and functional diversity thanlipids or carbohydrates, highly complex three dimensionalstructure - Contains nitrogen/NH2 amino group and - COOH acid group - Amino acids have central carbon atoms bonded to a hydrogenatom and three other groups of atoms - Final shape of a protein determines the properties and thefunctions of the protein - Some are electrically charged so they are attracted to water(soluble) |
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Which macromolecule breaks down into nucleotides? |
Nucleic Acids |
- Hereditary material within the genes of chromosomes - Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) contains five carbon sugardeoxyribose and is double stranded - Ribonucleic Acid (RNA) contains the five carbon sugar ribose and is single stranded - Four different nitrogen bases may be attached to the sugarphosphate backbone (A-T, C-G) - Sequencing of the nitrogen bases determines the genetic code(what characteristics the organism has) |
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Which part of the digestive system: - is like a blender? |
Mouth |
- Uses teeth to increase surface area |
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Which part of the digestive system: - contains salivary amylase |
Saliva |
- begins breakdown of carbohydrates in the mouth |
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Which part of the digestive system: - creates a bolus |
Tongue |
- mixes food with saliva |
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Which part of the digestive system: - is where the mouth and nose join |
Pharynx |
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Which part of the digestive system: - covers the trachea when you swallow |
Epiglottis |
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Which part of the digestive system: - is a connector between the mouth and the stomach |
Esophagus |
- Long muscular tube - Peristalsis pushes food to the stomach |
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Which part of the digestive system: - is an expandable sack - aka "the mixmaster" - produces chyme |
Stomach |
- Lined with slick mucusmembrane, creased andheavily folded ridges andwrinkles called rugae - The MixmasterMixes and churns food withdigestive juices to producechyme |
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What are the two sphincters of the stomach? |
Pyloric and Esophogeal |
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What does the stomach have that helps digest? |
Pepsin and a low pH of 1-3 |
- helps mechanically digest food - helps digest protein |
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Which hormone is stimulated by food in the stomach and signals increased acid production |
Gastrin |
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Which hormone is stimulated by high acid chyme in the small intestine, signals decreased stomach motility and signals pancreas to secrete sodium bicarbonate |
Secretin |
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Which hormone is stimulated by high fat chyme, slows stomach motility, and signals increased pancreatic and gall bladder secretions |
CCK |
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Which hormone is stimulated by high fat chyme and slows stomach motility |
GIP |
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Which part of the digestive system: - secretes the majority of the digestive enzymes into the small intestine |
Pancreas |
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What enzymes make up pancreatic fluid? |
- Trypsin and Chymotrypsin - Pancreatic amylase - Lipase - Sodium bicarbonate |
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What does trypsin and chymotrypsin digest? |
Protein |
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What does pancreatic amylase digest? |
- Carbohydrase |
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What does lipase digest? |
- lipids |
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Which part of the digestive system: - creates bile |
Liver |
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Which part of the digestive system: - stores bile |
Gall Bladder |
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What is the purpose of bile? |
Bile shreds fats and makes it much easier for lipase to digest it |
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Which part of the digestive system: - is responsible to complete digestion and absorb nutrients - is responsible for about 90% of digestion |
Small Intestine |
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What is the purpose of Mesentery? |
Mesentery is a thin membrane that holds the small intestine in place |
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Which part of the digestive system: - is where juices from liver and pancreas enter the small intestine |
The Duodenum |
- The upper part of the smallintestine - Protein would be further digested - Carbohydrates would be further digested - Fats from cheese and meat would bedigested - Nucleases help digest nucleic acids |
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What is villi and microvilli? |
The walls of the small intestine are coated in villi and microvilli to increase surface area. |
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How are most molecules absorbed into the bloodstream? |
Active transport |
- Absorbed into blood vessels |
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How are lipids absorbed into the bloodstream? |
Passive transport |
- Coated in proteins and absorbed into lymphatic system |
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Which part of the digestive system: - creates feces |
Large Intestine |
- Concentrates andeliminates waste - Some food is not digested - Water and salts areabsorbed - Bacteria break downundigested material further,produce vitamin K, B12 |
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Which part of the digestive system: - Lower right of abdomen - Breaks down cellulose in herbivores |
Caecum |
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Which part of the digestive system: - Extends from the caecum - Breaks down cellulose in herbivores - You can get taken out |
Appendix |
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Which part of the digestive system: - Controls the rate at which the contents of the small intestine pass into the large intestine |
Ileocaecal Sphincter |
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Which part of the digestive system: - Stores Feces |
Rectum |
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Which part of the digestive system: - Gets rid of feces |
Anus |
- An openingcontrolled by twosphincters |
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Which system is responsible for the intake and absorption of nutrients |
Digestive System |
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What is composed of nitrogen, oxygen, carbon dioxide, and trace gases |
The air that we breathe |
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What does cellular respiration produce |
Carbon Dioxide |
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What does cellular respiration need |
Oxygen |
- Produced by breathing |
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Why is there mucus and cilia lining the whole respiratory system? |
The respiratory system requires mucus to clean the air and keep the system moist and wet and cilia to expel unwanted particles |
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What are the four stages in respiration? |
1. Breathing 2. External Respiration 3. Internal Respiration 4. Cellular Respiration |
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What happens during the stage of breathing |
Two basic processes, inspiration (breathing in), and expiration (breathing out) |
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What happens during the stage of external respiration |
Exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between air and blood |
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What happens during the stage of cellular reapiration |
- A series of energy releasing chemical reactions that take place within the cells - Final stage in respiration - It provides energy for all cellular activities - Helps the body remain in homeostasis |
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What is the principal organ of respiration? |
Lungs |
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Which part of the respiratory system: - Warms the air - Filters the air - Mucus traps particles and supplies moisture |
Nasal Passageway |
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Which part of the respiratory system: - Takes in air |
Mouth |
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Which part of the respiratory system: - Branches into esophagus |
Pharynx |
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Which part of the respiratory system: - Is a flaplike structure covering the trachea when swallowing food |
Epiglottis |
- At rest, the epiglottis is upright to let air pass through the windpipe |
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Which part of the respiratory system: - Holds the voicebox |
Larynx |
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Which part of the respiratory system: - Has cartilaginous arches to prevent it from collapsing |
Trachea/Windpipe |
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Which part of the respiratory system: - What does the Trachea branch into |
Bronchi |
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Which part of the respiratory system: - Smaller passages from the Bronchi |
Bronchioles |
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Which part of the respiratory system: - Are surrounded by capillaries - Allow for rapid gas exchange |
Alveoli |
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How many lobes does the right lung have? |
Three |
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How many lobes does the left lung have? |
Two |
- Space for heart |
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What initiates breathing? |
The diaphragm |
- Separates the the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity |
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Intercostal muscles are found between the _____. |
Ribs |
These muscles expand to allow air in |
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Intake of air into the lungs happens when ______ |
The air pressure outside the lungs is higher than the air pressure inside the lungs |
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What happens during inspiration? |
- Diaphragm contracts and flattens - Rib cage moves up and out - Volume increases and pressure decreases |
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What happens during expiration? |
- Diaphragm relaxes and takes dome shape - Rib cage moves down and in - Volume decreases and pressures increase |
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What detects high carbon dioxide levels? |
Medulla Oblongata |
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External Respiration is when ____ |
Gas exchange between air and in the blood (pulmonary capillaries) |
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How thick are capillaries? |
One cell layer thick |
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When is blood deoxygenated? |
When it is high in CO2 |
Carried in the blood as bicarbonate ion, HCO3 |
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External respiration is driven by ______ |
As CO2 leaves the blood |
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What is Hemoglobin? |
Iron containing respiratory pigment found in blood |
- Carries oxygen - More attached to oxygen in cool, neutral environment (lungs) - less attached to oxygen in warm, acidic environment (tissue) - 99% of oxygen is carried by hemoglobin |
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What is internal respiration? |
- Exchange of O2 and CO2 between the blood and the tissues |
- Oxygen diffuses out of the capillaries (blood) and into the tissues |
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What is Tidal Volume? |
The volume of air that is inhaled and exhaled in a normal breathing movement when the body is at rest |
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What is Inspiratory Reserve Volume? |
The additional volume of air that can be taken into the lungs, beyond a regular, or tidal, inhalation |
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Vital Capacity |
The total volume of gas that can be moved into or out of the lungs |
- Can be calculated as tidal volume + inspiratory reserve volume + expiratory reserve volume |
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What is Residual Volume |
The amount of gas that remains in the lungs and passageways of respiratory system after a full exhalation |
Never leaves, otherwise respiratory passageways would collapse |
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What is the Respiratory System responsible for? |
The intake of oxygen and the expel of carbon dioxide |
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What are the three main components of the circulatory system? |
- The heart - The blood vessel - The blood |
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What are the purposes of the circulatory system? |
- Carrying gases and nutrients to cells - wastes from cells - Moving chemical messengers/hormones from source to target - Distributing Heat - Aiding the kidney in maintaining body fluid levels - preventsblood loss - Defend body against invading organisms |
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What are the major pathways of the circulatory system? |
- Pulmonary - Systematic - Coronary |
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Which pathway of the circulatory system: - Brings body deoxygenated blood to the heart for transport to the lungs |
Pulmonary pathway |
Mainly Veins |
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Which pathway of the circulatory system: - Takes Oxygenated blood from the lungs and pumps it to the body |
Systematic pathway |
Mainly arteries |
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Which pathway of the circulatory system: - Dedicated to providing blood to the muscle tissue of the heart |
Coronary pathway |
- Made of capillaries embedded in heart wall receivingblood from 2 coronary arteries that split from the aorta. - Coronary arteries branch until network encircle heart likecrown so oxygen rich blood moves through vessels intocapillary bed where gas exchange occurs |
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Which part of the circulatory system: - Carry blood away from the heart |
Arteries |
- Three layers - middlemuscle surrounded by primarily rigid connective tissue - Strongest, thickest vessel able to withstand surges fromheart - Smaller branches, the arterioles, lead off from thearteries |
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What is vasoconstriction? |
An automatic response of thesympathetic nerve, is a constriction which reduces thediameter of the blood vessel |
A process that occurs when the body is cold to keep heat in the core |
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What is vasodilation? |
Increases the diameter of the vessel |
- Controlled by the Vagus nerve |
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Which part of the circulatory system: - Joins arteries and veins |
Capillaries |
- Single layer of cells forexchange with cells - Easilydestroyed by High bloodpressure or a hit giving rise toa bruises blood moves intointerstitial spaces - Area of oxygen diffusion;protein moves by endocytosisand exocytosis; water =soluble ions and vitaminsmove out through spaces |
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Which part of the circulatory system: - Carries blood to the heart |
Veins |
- Venules collects CO2 & wasteswhile merging into these larger vessels - Have one way valves to prevent blood fromflowing backward and skeletal muscles pumpblood back to heart - Decreased pressure on the venous side helpedby valves and muscles |
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What is the fluid filled membrane surrounding the heart, to prevent friction? |
Pericardium |
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What is the name of the wall that divides the heart into two separate sections? |
The Septum |
- Divides parallel pumps |
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What type of muscle is the heart made of? |
Cardiac muscle |
- This type of muscle is found nowhere else in the body |
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How many chambers does the heart have? |
Four |
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What are the four chambers of the heart? |
- Left and right atria - Left and right ventricles |
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Atria are above the ____ and fill with blood returning from the _____ (right) or the _____ (left) |
ventricles, body, lungs |
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Ventricles are below the _____ and receive blood from atria to either pump it to _____ (left) or _____ (right) |
Atria, body, lungs |
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What part of the heart: - receive blood from body and open into rightatrium - is the first step of bringing blood through the heart |
Vena Cava |
- Superior vena cava brings blood from upper bodyand inferior vena cava collects from lower body |
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Which arteries brings blood from the right ventricle to the lungs to be oxygenated |
Pulmonary arteries |
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Which artery carries deoxygenated blood? |
Pulmonary arteries |
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Which veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left ventricle? |
Pulmonary veins |
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Which veins carries oxygenated blood? |
Pulmonary veins |
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How many valves are in the heart? |
Four |
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What are the valves in the heart responsible for? |
Ensures blood flow in correctdirection |
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Atria and Ventricles are separated by ______ valves |
Atrioventricular |
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What are ventricles and arteries separated by? |
Semilunar valves |
- half moon shape |
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Right atrioventricular valve called _____ valve |
Tricuspid |
- 3 flaps |
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Left atrioventricular valve called ____ valve |
Bicuspid |
- 2 flaps |
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Cardiac muscle never ____ |
fatigues |
- This would be very bad |
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First P wave monitors ______ |
Atrial contraction |
First wave, P wave, monitors atrial contraction/QRS wave is ventricular contraction/final T wavesignals ventricles have recovered |
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Final T wave ______ |
Signals ventricles have recovered |
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Atria relaxed, filling with blood, then as theycontract blood is forced into the relaxing ventricles,known as ___________ |
diastolic |
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As ventricles contract, blood is forced against theAV valves producing the _____ sound |
Lub |
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Ventricular contraction forces blood through thesemilunar valve, known as ________ |
Systemic |
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As the ventricles relax, blood rushes back againstthe semilunar valves causing the ______ sound |
Dub |
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Blood leaking by a valve is a _______, a gurglingsound; compensation is by beating faster andcontracting with greater force |
Murmur |
- Stretched andgreater volume |
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What is the pressure of exerted by blood on the vesselsin the body corresponding with phases of the heartbeat? |
Blood pressure |
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What measures blood pressure? |
Sphygmomanometer |
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What receptors monitor high blood pressure? |
Baroreceptors |
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Which part of the blood is composed of plasma (water,dissolves gases, proteins,sugars, vitamins, minerals,hormones, and waste products)? |
Fluid portion |
- Transports carbon dioxide viadiffusion |
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Which part of the blood is composed of red bloodcells, white blood cells, andplatelets? |
Formed portion |
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Where are platelets produced? |
The bone marrow |
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What are erythrocytes? |
Red blood cells |
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What are red blood cells used for? |
Oxygen transport |
- biconcave disks, whichprovides a greater surface area for gasexchange |
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What is hemoglobin? |
- Iron containingrespiratory pigment that carries oxygen |
- Red blood cells are packed with hemoglobin |
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What are leucocytes? |
White blood cells |
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What are white blood cells used for? |
Form antibodies to fightinfections and they also clean up sites ofinfection |
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What makes erythrocytes and leucocytes easily distinguishable from each other? |
Leucocytes have nuclei and Erythrocytes don't |
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Are platelets cells? |
NO |
- They don't have a nuclei |
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What part of the blood move through the blood vesselsand if they struck a rough surface (such asthat created by a torn blood vessel in a cutor abrasion) they break apart releasing aprotein called fibrin to start clotting process |
Platelets |
- Small fragments of cells that break fromlarge cells in the bone marrow |
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What is the first step to blood clotting? |
Serotonin released by platelets causes vessels around the cut toconstrict |
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What is the second step to blood clotting? |
Platelets clump at the site to partially seal the leak |
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What is the third step to blood clotting? |
Injured tissue release the enzyme prothrombin activator |
- In the presence of calcium, prothrombin (protein found inplasma) is activated to form thrombin |
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What is the fourth step to blood clotting? |
Thrombin then reacts with fibrinogen to produce fibrin |
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What is the fifth step to blood clotting? |
Fibrin is a long stringy protein that forms a “mesh” around the cut tobuild a clot. The clot traps other blood cells repair the area |
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What is the sixth step to blood clotting? |
Enzymes called plasmin destroys the fibrin network and restore thefluidity of plasma |
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______proteins are large chemical complexes composed ofcarbohydrates and proteins that can be found on cellmembranes |
glyco |
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What is an antigen? |
A substance that stimulates the formation ofantibodies |
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What is an antibody? |
Proteins formed in the blood that react withantigens |
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Which blood group has no antibodies? |
AB |
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Which blood group has no antigens? |
O |
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What is the Lymphatic system responsible for? |
- Transport of excess tissue fluid (interstitial fluid) back tocardiovascular system - Maintains fluid balance in the body - Carries digested fat – absorption into the lacteal - Fighting infection – production of lymphocytes which mayproduce antibodies |
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What is Lymph? |
Colourless or pale yellow - Similar incomposition to blood plasma |
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Why does the lymphatic system only contain capillaries and veins? |
No pump |
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How many lines of defence are there? |
Three |
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Which line of defence is made of: - skin - mucous membranes - secretions of skin and mucous membranes |
First |
- Nonspecific defence mechanisms |
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Which line of defence is made of: - Phagocytic whit blood cells - antimicrobial proteins - the inflammatory response |
Second |
- Nonspecific defence mechanisms |
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Which line of defence is made of: - Lymphocytes - Antibodies |
Third |
- Specific defence mechanisms - Immune system |
