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124 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
You first start studying an endocrine gland by removing it from an experimental animal. Describe the possible effects of such a removal.
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Castration<------>parathyroid
no effect death |
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you remove an endocrine organ, see what happens, and then try to overcome that effect. what do you use to try to do that?
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inject an extract from gland, if you're able to purify it, then you're able to purify the hormone.
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"Hypo" is the prefix for the syndrome when the amount of hormone is _______. "Hyper" is the prefix when the amount of hormone is ______.
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too low, too high
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Name one group of hormones which could not be discovered by the classical removal-observe-inject technique.
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Releasing factors from the hypothalamus
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Name two releasing factors andtheir immediate effect only on pituitary hormones.
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ACTH RF--causes the release of ACTH
TSH RF--causes release of TSH |
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Name one inhibiting factor from the hypothalamus. Why is it so called?
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prolactin IF, inhibits prolactin releasing factor
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If the pituitary is underfunctioning, what is the major effect, and what hormone (or lack of it) is involved?
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dwarfism, because you produce too little growth factor
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Name two hormones of the anterior lobe of the pituitary and their immediate effect on the appropriate endocrine gland.
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TSH--causes thyroid to release thyroxin
ACTH--causes adrenals to release cortisol |
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Name two hormones stored in the posterior lobe of the pituitary, and briefly describe what they do.
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ADH--controls water reabsorption in kidney
Oxytosin--causes smooth muscle contraction in the uterus |
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If the pituitary is overfunctioning, what is the major effect, and what causes it?
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produce too much growth hormone, gigantism
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Acromegaly is a very common syndrome seen in older people. What is its cause?
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continued slow production of growth hormone
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Hormones are divided into two major groups. Name them and give a characteristic feature of each one.
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peptide--binds to receptor and activates second messanger
Steroid--acts on cell DNA |
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What is the second messanger?
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cyclic AMP, made in response to peptide hormone
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A peptide hormone switches on the second messagner. How, then, is the specificity characteristic of that hormone maintained?
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hormones have specific receptors which aren't present in all cells
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What does the second messanger do to the cell?
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activates inactive proteins already present in cells and has specific effects characteristic of specific hormones
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A steroid hormone enters the cell. In brief and general terms, what happens next?
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interacts with receptor in cell and activates DNA sequence to make proteins
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The classical example of endocrine study is the male reproductive system. What "advantages" accrue from carrying out the typical procedure for the study of endocrine organs in man and animal?
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Man--unable to produce sperm, safe attendant for women b/c they have low libido
Animal--b/c animals become more placid, don't fight |
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Removal of the characteristically male endocrine organ can be reversed by an extract of the testes, containing _____.
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Testosterone
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What environmental aspect is vital for the production of viable sperm?
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temperature must be below body temperature
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Below a certain quite large number of sperm per ejaculate, a male is essentially sterile. Give two theories as to why this is so.
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1. because sperm have hyaluronidase (an enzyme) to digest the first layer of the egg
2. survival of the fittest |
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Name two vital funcitons of testosterone
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1. maturation of sperm
2. growth and development of reproductive organs |
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Name two 'secondary sexual characteristics' affected by testosterone.
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1. deepening of voice
2. growth of body hair |
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Semen is made up of three constituents. Name them.
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1. sperm
2. seminal vesicle fluid 3. prostate fluid |
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A sperm may live for 24 hours, an egg for 72 hours. calculate the period over which an egg can be fertilzed--showing your calculation.
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Sperm Egg Sperm
<----><--------><-----> 1 day 3 days 1 day=4 days |
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There are three kinds of tears. Name them and describe what they do.
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continuous--keep eyes wet throughout the day
reflex--wash away irritants psychogenic--wash away hormones like endorphins |
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Lutenizing hormone level in males is controlled by _____ produced by the _____.
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testosterone, testes
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The cells of Sertoli are affected by what hormone from the pituitary?
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FSH
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And what that hormone from the cells of Sertoli does is to aid in the formation of _____________.
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sperm by facilitating testosterone entry into support cells.
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The formation and accumulation of sperm induces the production of an inhibitory hormone called _____.
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inhibin
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Inhibin is a testicular hormone whos mode of action is to affect the production of ______.
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FSH
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The advantage of inhibin as a male contraceptive would be that it would specifically affect just one part of the system. Why would that be an advantage?
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leaves rest of system intact, so male still produces testosterone, maintains libido and secondary sex characteristics
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Another chemical compound leaves much of the male reproductive system intact. What is its name, and what does it affect?
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gossypol, makes sperm unable to swim as well
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What is a simple explanation for menopause in women?
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decrease in estrogen
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Primary follicles develop into ______ and then, under the influence of LH, that body changes into the ______.
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Graafian follicles, Corpus luteum
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The succession of hormones affecting the endometruim is:
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1st: estrogen, 2nd: progesterone
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FSH derives its name from female reproductive activities. What is its full name and what does it do?
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Follicle Stimulating Hormone
initiates growth of primary follicles into Graafian follicles, which produce estrogen |
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LH derives its name from female reproductive activities. What is its name and what does it do?
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Lutenizing Hormone, induces ovulation and causes changes of the Graafian follicle, which become the corpus luteum
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The developing oocyte may produce two hormones which affect FSH production. Their names and individual effects are:
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inhibin--inhibits FSH
activin--stimulates FSH |
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A drastic way to prevent reproductive cells from interacting is called _____ in males, and _______ in females.
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vasectomy, tubal ligation
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Outline two methods of 'contraception' which don't prevent male and female cells from interacting.
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IUD--sponge containing prostaglandins
mornding after pill--maintains high level of estrogen, which prevents surge of LH |
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What is the function of the pill in preventing conception?
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prevents egg from implanting itself
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What are the usual constituents of the pill and how are they delivered in the combination and sequential modes?
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Constituents--estrogen and progesterone analogs
Combination--pill has both, taken over 28 days Sequential--pills have estrogen for first 14 days, and both for last 14 days |
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Name two reasonable possibilities for contraception in the future.
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Gossypol, inhibin
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Give a short description of the disorder of the female reproductive organs called primary and secondary amenorrhea.
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Primary--never had a period and ovaries are nonfunctioning
Secondary--transient absence of menstrual cycle |
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Give a short description of the disorder of the female reproductive organs called dysmenorrhea. What is believed to be the reason for it?
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Very painful mentruation, overproduction of prostaglandins
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Lutenizing hormone level in males is controlled by _____ produced by the _____.
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testosterone, testes
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The cells of Sertoli are affected by what hormone from the pituitary?
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FSH
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And what that hormone from the cells of Sertoli does is to aid in the formation of _____________.
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sperm by facilitating testosterone entry into support cells.
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The formation and accumulation of sperm induces the production of an inhibitory hormone called _____.
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inhibin
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Inhibin is a testicular hormone whose mode of action is to affect the production of ______.
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FSH
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The advantage of inhibin as a male contraceptive would be that it would specifically affect just one part of the system. Why would that be an advantage?
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leaves rest of system intact, so male still produces testosterone, maintains libido and secondary sex characteristics
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Another chemical compound leaves much of the male reproductive system intact. What is its name, and what does it affect?
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gossypol, makes sperm unable to swim as well
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What is a simple explanation for menopause in women?
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decrease in estrogen
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Primary follicles develop into ______ and then, under the influence of LH, that body changes into the ______.
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Graafian follicles, Corpus luteum
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The succession of hormones affecting the endometrium is:
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1st: estrogen, 2nd: progesterone
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FSH derives its name from female reproductive activities. What is its full name and what does it do?
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Follicle Stimulating Hormone
initiates growth of primary follicles into Graafian follicles, which produce estrogen |
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LH derives its name from female reproductive activities. What is its name and what does it do?
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Lutenizing Hormone, induces ovulation and causes changes to the Graafian follices, which become the corpus luteum
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The developing oocyte may produce two hormones which affect FSH production. Their names and individual effects are:
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Inhibin: inhibits FSH
Activin: stimulates FSH |
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A drastic way to prevent reproductive cells from interacting is called ______ in males, and ______ in females.
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vasectomy, tubal ligation
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Outline two methods of contraception which don't prevent male and female reproductive cells from interacting.
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IUD--sponge containing prostaglandins
Morning after pill--maintains high levels of estrogen, which prevents a surge of LH |
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What is the major function of the pill in preventing contraception?
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prevents egg from implanting itself
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What are the usual constituents of the pill and how are they delivered in the combination and sequential modes?
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Constituents--estrogen and progesterone analogs
Combination--pill has both and is taken over 28 days Sequential--pills have estrogen for 1st 14 day and both for last 14 days |
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Name two reasonable possibilities for contraception in the future.
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gossypol, inhibin
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Give a short description of the disorder of the female reproductive organs called primary and secondary amenorrhea.
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Primary--never had a period and ovaries are nonfunctioning
Secondary--transient absence of menstrual cycle |
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Give a short description of dysmenorrhea. What is believed to be the reason for it?
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very painful menstruation, overproduction of prostaglandins
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What is endometriosis, why is it a problem, and how would you treat it?
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When endometrial tissue grows outside of the uterus. At menstruation it sloughs off and causes bleeding in the abdominal cavity. Treated by taking the pill to maintain tissue
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Endometrial tissue outside the uterus can result in the condition known as _______ and may be controlled by what method?
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endometriosis, taking the pill
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Name two symptoms of PMS.
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irritability, water weight gain
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At what time in her life is a woman most susceptible to breast cancer, and why?
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after menopause, because estrogen levels drop
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What is the difference between the trophoblastic and placental phases of pregnancy?
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Trophoblastic--corpus luteum is maintained and trophoblasts eat their way into endometrial tissue
Placental--when shared fetal and maternal tissue, nutrients pass from maternal circulatory system to fetal CS |
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What hormone is produced only during pregnancy?
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chorionic gonadotrophin
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When does chorionic gonadotrophin start to appear in a pregnant female?
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6 weeks after contraception
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Give one explanation why the fetus is expelled after 270 days.
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uterus stops growing, but the fetus does not, so it starves. Hormone levels drop, causing contraction of the uterus
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Name two effects of lactation on the reproductive organs of the female.
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oxytocin--uterine contraction, milk ejection
prolactin--supresses FSH |
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name two different parts of the male reproductive system and explain the function of each.
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Testes--produce sperm and testosterone
Seminal vesicles--feeds sperm |
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Name two different parts of the female reproductive system and explain the functions of each.
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Ovaries--egg maturation occurs here, releases estrogen and progesterone
Fallopian tubes--where fertilization of the egg takes place |
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What is happening during puberty?
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Male and female reproductive glands become functional
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Explain the function of pubic hair.
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traps pheremones
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Name and explain briefly two disorders of the reproductive system in males or females
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prostate cancer, amenorrhea
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If a male rat is castrated one week after birth, then an ovary is implanted later in life, will that ovary show signs of activity?
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No, because the crucial period of one week has passed and he is already a male. If it had been done immediately after birth, then he would be female and the ovary would function
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Name two symptoms that you might expect to see if someone has myxedema.
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Low BMR, sensitivity to cold, easily fatigued
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Thyroglobulin is a thyroid protein containing a very special amino acid. THe name of that amino acid is _____.
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Thyroxine (T4)
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Triiodothymine is the name given to the active hormone of the thyroid gland. What is its relationship to thyroxine?
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T4 is long acting, can be converted to T3 by loss of iodine.
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What does T3 actually do?
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Acts directly on genetic material to increase mitochondrial activity, which causes an increase in ATP
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What is simple goiter and how can it be cured?
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swelling in thyroid gland to grab on to iodine, give iodine in the diet
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President and Mrs. Bush both had Graves disease. What was done to treat them, and what is their continuing need for treatment?
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Have thryoid killed with large doses of radioactive iodine, treat for hypothyroidism by giving T4
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Whta condition is associated with exopthalmia, and what is another symptom that is usually associated with this disease?
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Hyperthyroidism, excitablity and high BMR
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What effect does T3 or T4 have on the pituitary gland?
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inhibits production of TSH (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone)
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What effect does T3 or T4 have on the hypothalamus?
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inhibits TSH RF
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How does the external environment affect the levels of T4 and T3?
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Throug the feedback loop, T3 and 4 are set in hypothalamus, responding to external temperature; hot=less, cold=more
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How are tumors of the thyroid gland most likely to arise?
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accumulation of radioactive iodine, through foodchain or excessive x-rays
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Tetany is a condition involving muscle spasms and eventually death. What ionic component of the blood will be low when this disease occurs?
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calcium ion
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A hormone will be low if an animal has tetany. The name of that hormone is ______.
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parathormone
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How does parathormone effect the activity if osteoclasts?
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increases activity so bone dissolves and calcium increases in blood
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An osteoblast is a bone cell whose activity is controlled by a hormone called ______.
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calcitonin
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How does calcitonin affect the activity of the osteoblast?
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increases, causes a build up of bone and decrease of calcium in blood
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Calcium blood level is carefully controlled by parathyroid hormone, but that blood level is also affected by a completely different hormone. That hormone is called _______.
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Vitamin D
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In the absence of Vitamin D, a person suffers from a disease called _______, common in Victorian times.
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Rickets
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Hyperthyroidism is a very common syndrome. Among what group of people is it usually found?
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postmenopausal women
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Parathormone is antagonized by a completely different hormone, namely a sex hormone. What is the result of changing levels of that hormone?
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estrogen, as it decreases parathormone increases, so calcium is broken down from bones and they become weaker.
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Parathormone level is controlled in a very simple manner. Diagram this control system
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Parathormone <-----
----->Calcium in blood |
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The pancreas is an organ which does two completely different things. List what that involves.
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Exocrine function--produce enzymes, bicarbonate for digestion
Endocrine function--insulin and glucagon (produced in islands of langerhans) |
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High blood sugar in associated with the disease commonly called ______.
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diabetes
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Sugar is found in the urine of a diabetic. This is because ________.
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Sugar is not getting into body cells so it overflows into the urine
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Incomplete metabolism of fat, in particular, in the diabetic leads to accumulation and elimination of a group of compounds with a fairly distinctive odor. These are called ________.
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Ketone bodies
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The rule for insulin production is that insulin tracks glucose. Explain what that means in real life and in terms of the control of insulin production.
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Glucose and insulin levels fluctuate, each eventuallu returning to fasting rate
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A crude extract of the pancreas raises blood sugar, the opposite of what you might expect. What is the explanation for this contradictory result?
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extract contains a 2nd hormone called glucagon, which raises blood sugar
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Glucagon raises blood sugar, insulin lowers it. Present an alternative theory to explain diabetes based on that finding.
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diabetes could be due to excess glucagon, and not too little insulin
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An alternative theory for diabetes is that it is caused by excess production of glucagon. How could you lower the amount of glucagon, using another hormone and how does this work?
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Somatostatin, antagonizes glucagon, but is has lots of side effects
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Diabetes may in some instances be associated with a virus infection early in life. Explain the connection.
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Infection will destroy part of the beta cells in the islands of langerhans, and immune system thinks the cells are foreign and destroys them (autoimmune disease)
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There is a genetic connection for diabetes. What will be the effect, in say, another 1000 years and why?
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There will be a gradual increase in the number of diabetics because most diabetics live well past the reproductive age and pass it on to their children
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Removal of the adrenal gland is fatal. Which part of the gland is responsible for this effect?
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Cortex
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The medulla of the adrenal gland arises embryologically from a tissue called the neural crest. Explain then what the medulla does.
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produces adrenaline, prolonging action of sympathetic nervous system
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The cortex of the adrenal produces testosterone. Explain why there is conspicuous evidence of that in a segment of the population.
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In females, testosterone is overshadowed by estrogen before menopause. At menopause, when estrogen drops, there is an increase in masculinization
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What is the stress hormone of the adrenal and how is it controlled?
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Cortisol
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Aldosterone is the most important hormone of the adrenal. What does it do, and what does characteristically wrong in its absence?
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Necessary for reabsorption of sodium in kidney. Without it, the Sodium/potassium ratio is altered. Too much Potassium results in death
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What characteristic symptoms are seen if the adrenal glands are underfunctioning?
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weight loss, plasma volume decreases, darkening of cartiledge
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Name one highly distinctive symptom associated with Cushing's disease.
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moon-shaped face, masculinization
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What is a circadian rhythym?
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about a day (25 hrs.), fluctuation of different body components
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The pineal gland produces melatonin. What is the major effect of this hormone, and how does that relate to the development of a human being?
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imposes circadian rhythym, antagonizes sex hormones
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Give the results of the following two experiments, along with a brief explanation.
Mouse + skin graft-- Mouse-Thymys + skin graft-- |
1. rejects because the body doesn't like anybody else
2. accepts because the thymus is required to mature T-cells |
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A hormone from the thymus gland is vital for the maturation of a group of white blood cells. What is the name of the hormone and what are the white blood cells called?
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thymosin, T-cells
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The AIDS virus attacks helper T-cells specifically. Give two properties of these cells which are thus affected by this infection.
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1. increase number of macrophages and lymphokines
2. increase production of interferons |
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The immune system is delicately balanced to repel invaders, but not anything else. What type of T-cell is specifically involved in the latter function, and what happens if that mechanism goes awry?
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T-cell type: supressor T-cells
Consequence: autoimmune disease |