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48 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Polyembryony
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Mating→ fertilization of egg→ egg
laying egg→ divides by mitosis producing multiple copies (clones) of the egg →embryo develops Found in several parasitic wasps may result in several thousand offspring from a single egg |
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Female stores sperm in
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spermatheca
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Generative parthenogenesis
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Fertilized eggs female offspring
diploid (2n) Unfertilized eggs male offspring haploid (n) |
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Automictic
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Next most common asexual type
meiosis results in formation of an egg and a polar body recombination of these components provides some genetic variation all offspring are female |
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Apomictic
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Most common asexual type
has no meiosis (reduction division) no genetic variation among offspring and parent all offspring are female |
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egg hatch
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eclosion
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egg case
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(ootheca)
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Sexual strategies
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Most insect species are sexual
Three main variations oviparity(eggs deposited then hatch) ovoviviparity(eggs hatch immediately before or just as the larvae are deposited) viviparity(egg hatches in females body and developed live young are deposited) |
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Reproductive strategies
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Sexual
species have both males & females Polyembryony species are usually female but can have males occasionally Asexual species are female |
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Gender determination
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There are no sex hormones in insects
Gender is determined by a balance of male and female chromosomes within each cell Often find gynandromorphs with both male and female characters |
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External Male Genitalia of Ptergotes
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aed: aedeagus: median
intromittant organ pmr: paramere: outer claspers phtr: phallotreme: opening for semen or spermatophore |
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Chemical communication
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Pheromones
within species communication Kairomones between species communication |
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the insect during a growth stage
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instar
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the time spent in a growth stage
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stadium
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types of insect metamorphosis
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l ametabolous (no change)
l paurometabolous (simple change) l hemimetabolous (partial change) l holometabolous (complete change) |
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Ametabolous
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§Immature & adult individuals look alike:
l all adults are wingless l immatures are called nymphs l egg-> nymph-> nymph -> nymph-> adult §Adult & immature stages occur together in the same habitat and use same food resources |
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Paurometabolous:
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Simple metamorphosis,
Adults and nymphs live in the same habitat (terrestrial) |
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Paurometabolous & Hemimetabolous
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§Immature & adult stages look similar
l most adults have wings (some are wingless) l immatures have external wingpads •these are referred to as exopterygotes, where the wings develop externally |
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Aquatic species
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naiad & adult stages occupy
different habitats and use different food resources l naiads live in water, adults do not l this is thought to be a more advanced lifestyle due to the reduced competition between immature and adult for space and resources |
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Larval forms
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Campodeiform
Elateriform Eruciform Scarabaeiform Vermiform |
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Scarabaeiform
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-soft-bodied, slightly mobile
l whitegrub |
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Vermiform
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-soft-bodied, slightly
mobile l fly maggot l ant, wasp, & bee larvae |
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Campodeiform
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-highly mobile
l ladybird beetle, lacewing |
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Eruciform
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-soft-bodied, mobile
l caterpillar |
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Elateriform
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-long, slender, mobile
l mealworm, wireworm |
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Pupal forms
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Exerate
Obtect §Coarctate |
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§Coarctate
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l pupa is within the last larval cast
exoskeleton l the actual pupa may be exerate or obtect |
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§Exerate
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l appendages visible, not fused to
body |
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§Obtect
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l some appendages visible, fused to
body |
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Water balance
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For animals with high surface : mass ratio (small animals), losing water is a concern
body wall loss -reduced by the wax layer on outer exoskeleton respiratory loss -only “exhale” when CO2 levels in body are high excretory loss -recover H2O through rectal pads = dry waste (uric acid) |
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Innate behaviors
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Also called fixed-action patterns & responses instincts
Once, all insects were thought to be “programmed” to respond in a certain way to stimuli, but we now know that some species can learn things |
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Types of innate behaviors
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Kineses
Taxes Most behaviors have a prefix indicating the type of stimulus, i.e., phototaxis, thermokinese They also are referred to as being either positive or negative |
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Kineses
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random (non-directional) movements in
response to a stimulus |
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Taxes
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directional movements toward, or away
from, a stimulus |
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Learning
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Associative learning
Latent learning Habituation Defined as an unpredictable relationship between a stimulus and a response an individuals response to the same stimulus varies with exposure |
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is a decrease in a response
after repeated exposure this is what you see in most insects |
Habituation
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is when there is an
observed association between a proper response and a reward |
Associative learning
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Latent learning
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is when the right response is made when no immediate reward is
provided |
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Rhythms
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Exogenous rhythms are driven by
environmental cues day length, temperature, etc. Endogenous rhythms are driven by internal cues, like hormones We often refer to these as “circadian rhythms” or “biological clocks” |
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Type I migrants
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“go one way” and never return
(ecologically this is dispersal) often in response to locally limited resources Biblical plague locusts Gulf fritillary butterflies |
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Type II migrants
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Many insects move away from where
they spent their immature stages before they will mate These same individuals then return to lay eggs in the correct habitat Lek behavior Many mayflies Some dragonflies and damselflies |
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Type III migrants
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True migrants, rare in insects
Monarch butterflies are only well documented species |
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Allomones
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-defensive chemicals
many of these species are aposomatic may have specialized exocrine glands regurgitation defecation reflex bleeding forcing hemolymph from special pores in body anal glands |
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MIMICRY
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Takes many forms
Batesian Mimicry Mullerian Mimicry Wasmannian Mimicry |
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Batesian Mimicry
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described by Henry Walker
Bates mimic is palatable, model is distasteful or poisonous predators learn to avoid model |
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Mullerian Mimicry
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described by Fritz Muller
several distasteful species resemble each other |
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Wasmannian Mimicry
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described by Eric Wasmann
predator lives in the nest of other species inquiline (guest) looks like host |
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Respiration Methods
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Directly from air
Siphon ––sometimes telescoping Piercing spiracle Air bubble ––temporary air storage From water Cutaneous – simple body wall Tracheal gills – –filamentous, plate, anal Plastron (physcial gill)––permanent air storage Ventilation various movements to access oxygenated water |
