Bio 261 Test Two

Front 1

Water potential

Back 1

Ability of water to do work. Usually negative and H2O goes to more negative place.
--causes flow from soil to root to stem to leaf to air

Front 2

3 components of water potential

Back 2

1)Osmotic - less solutes, more potential
2)Pressure - more press, more potential
3)Matrix - finer particles, more potential

Front 3

Adaptations of xerophytes

Back 3

1)ephemeral annuals - grow quickly
2)thick cuticles w/ sunken stomates
3)Very deep roots all way to H2O table
4)Succulent = store H2O and minimize SA:V

Front 4

Adaptations of animals to survive desert?

Back 4

-Be nocturnal and live underground where it's damper
-rely on oxidative metabolism
-special nasal passages to absorb water in air
-estivate/diapause = inactive in dry part of year

Front 5

How do terrestrial and aquatic organisms regulate their water budget?

Back 5

•Plants
-Balance osmotic pressure in roots
-plants balance transpiration lose by opening/closing stomata
-Air channels to roots in wet soil
•Animals
-drink enough
-some from oxidative metabolism
-minimize lose from respiration, excretion and movement through skin (thick exoskeleton)

Front 6

Sources of E for organisms

Back 6

Sunlight (photoautotrophs)
Organic molecules (heterotrophes)
Inorganic molecules (chemoautotrophes)

Front 7

∆s in hv as moves through water, canopy, and atmosphere

Back 7

1)In atmosphere: 31% to space, 19% ab by clouds, 50% ab by surface
2)In canopy: Only 1-15% gets to floor dep. on forest type (pine>deciduous>boreal>rainforest)
3)In water: 50% gone by 10m down, red end (700nm) absorbed much faster

Front 8

Types of photosynthesis?

Back 8

1)C3 = standard
-can have photorespiration where RuBP to get 1 instead of 2 PGA( the 3C product)
-more photo-respiration the higher the T or lower [CO2]
-opt T 15-30ºC
-most transpiration
-might protect plant at high light levels

2)C4 = spatial separtation to red. photorespiration
-CO2 fixed to 4C acids in mesophyll
-transported to bundle sheath where used in Calvin cycle
-opt 30-40ºC

3)Temporal Separation
-CO2 uptaken at night and stored as 4C compounds in vacoule
-during day do Calvin cycle
-opt 30-35ºC

Front 9

Photosynthesis type on plant distribution?

Back 9

1)C3 = lots places
2)C4 = 1/2 are grasses (grow in warmest part of year best)
3)CAM = hot/dry places, but more widespread b/c it's faculative

Front 10

Optimal Foraging Theory and three resultant strategies

Back 10

Maximum amount of energy acquired per unit of time - graph on # prey caught v #prey/pred
1)Limit by handling time (catching/eating) - steep then leveling curve
2)Limit by search image (choose one abundant prey at a time) - logistic curve
3)Limit by time (filter feeder) - linear slope up

Front 11

Def of evolution

Back 11

1)"Changes in populations of organisms that transcend the lifetime of a single individual"
2)Changes in allele frequency over time

Front 12

4 mechanisms of evolution

Back 12

1)Gene flow - Migration
2)Genetic drift - Random changes in allele frequ. b/c each generation samples the last. (>500 ind. susceptible to long term drift)
3)Mutation - heritable change in DNA
4)Natural Selection - Adaptive evolution due to differential reproduction

Front 13

Three types of natural selection

Back 13

1)Stabilizing: Babies birth wieght
2)Directional: Galapagos finch
3)Disruptive: African seed crackers

Front 14

Fitness and how to calculate?

Back 14

Contribution of an individual to genes of next generation.


w = # survivining in a category / # surviving in best category

(therefore in best category w = 1)

Front 15

Necessary conditions for natural selection

Back 15

1)Genetic variability
2)Excess Reproduction (more born than can survive/reproduce)

Front 16

2 measures of genetic variation

Back 16

1)Allozymes: comparisons of enzymes
2)DNA: comparisons of sequences

Front 17

Types of genetic variation measured w/ DNA

Back 17

1) Percent polymorphic: P (a yes or no - is there only 1 allele?)
2) # alleles at a loci: A
3) Heterozygosity: H = (% het at locus 1 + % het @ locus 2 + ...) / # of loci
4)Level of Inbreeding: F= (Hran - Hobs) / Hran
-H = 1 is self-fertilization and H= 0 is no inbreeding

Front 18

Hardy-Weinberg principle and its assumptions

Back 18

A null hypothesis that no evolution is occurring, assumptions:
1)No migration
2)No mutation
3)No Natural selection
4)Large pop
5)Random mating

Front 19

Affect of inbreeding on H-W?

Back 19

Inbreeding changes genotypic frequency (Aa, AA, aa), but not allelic frequency (a vs A)
-In H-W equation add pqF to both homozygous terms (q^2 and p^2), and subrtact 2pqF from heterozygous term (2pq)

Front 20

Cost and benefits of inbreeding

Back 20

Cost = lose variabitlity and therefore:
1)more susceptible to deleterious alleles
2)reduced ability to respond to environmental changes

Benefits:
1)Easier to find mate
2)Reinforce good phenotype -> precursor to hybrid vigor in agriculture

Front 21

Calculate and explain Ne w/ formula.

Back 21

It's the number of breeding individuals in a population.
-Nm = # males
-Nf = # females

Front 22

50/500 rule?

Back 22

Demonstrates the importance of a lagre population to have long term viability.
-50 individuals prevents inbreeding
-500 prevents excessive drift

Front 23

Heretibility and how to calculate it?

Back 23

Proportion of observable difference in quantitative trait (QTL) that is due to genetic difference.

H^2 = (Vgen / Vphen)

Vgen = additive variance + dominance variance + interactive variance

h^2 = Vadd / Vphen

-additive is due to diff b/t genes (others are due to interaction b/t genes) = phenotypic diff b/t AA and Aa.
1=high heritability (# fingers)
0=not heritable (reproductive traits often)

Front 24

Using response to selection equation?

Back 24

R = h^2 S

R is response
S is selection differential (∆ in mean of trait b/t two groups)

Do example of flies from book!!

Front 25

Speciation

Back 25

Reproductive isolation of population causes it to diverge from other populations over time. Ex is finches in Galapagos

Front 26

Adaptive radiations

Back 26

Quick formation of many new species from an original one due to:
1) Opportunity - Mass Extinction or founder
2) Innovation - eg teeth for predation

Front 27

life history patterns

Back 27

Overall pattern and nature of life events across individuals of a species

Front 28

r vs K strategies

Back 28

R: rapid dev, reproduce early, small body, semelparity(one reprod. cycle), many/small offspring

K: slow dev, reproduce late, large body, iteroparity, few/large offspring

-Best at comparing closely related species in similar environment
-Limited b/c most species are intermediate and only have some characteristics

Front 29

Grime's categories

Back 29

Triangle model for plant strategy:
1)High stress tolerant - ivies
2)High competition tolerant - birch
3)High disturbance tolerant (ruderal) - dandelion

-Good way to think abt plants
-Many are intermediate

Front 30

limitations on adaptation

Back 30

1)environment constantly in flux
2)Dep on evolutionary history - need variation
3)Linked traits
4)Biological trade-offs (ie reproduction vs survival)
5)Low heritability

Front 31

Charnov's life history comparisons

Back 31

ratio:

c= (age of sexual maturity / mean adult lifespan)

-Eliminates age and size and can compare very different organisms
-Less info learned

Front 32

Trade-offs b/t number and size of offspring

Back 32

Larger offsring, or more parental care the fewer offspring an individual can have, but each one is more likely to survive. Also smaller offspring can be dispersed farther (if you're a seed).

Front 33

How do seeds vary w/ dispersal mechanism?

Back 33

Smaller the propogule the farther it can travel. (Pollen goes really far, seeds not as far)

Front 34

A population?

Back 34

Group of individuals of a species in a particular area at the same time. Mendelian population = breeding individuals.

Individual to kin group to deme to population

Front 35

4 characteristics of a population?

Back 35

1) Density: # indv/ unit area
2) Spatial Distribution: where in world at different times of year (distribution and abundance)
3) Age and size structure: life tables, etc.
4) Genetic Structure

Front 36

Pop studies in unitary vs modular organisms?

Back 36

In unitary species (dogs) easy to separate individuals and compare.
In modular species (aspen) count:
N = # zygotes
n = # mod units/individaul
Nn = total number of mod units
-must decide what one is counting w/ modular spcies

Front 37

Diff b/t studying plant and animal populations

Back 37

Plants often modular so have to count something besides genetically unique individuals (# modular units/ biomass / basal area)

Front 38

Factors in population density

Back 38

1)Birthrates
2)Deathrates
3)Migration

Front 39

Relatvie vs absolute density

Back 39

Relative is unit-less, only comparative (ie Audubon Christmas bird count)

Front 40

Studying pop density of mobile vs immobile species?

Back 40

Mobile = use mark and recapture
Immobile = use quadrats and random sampling

Front 41

Factors influencing spatial distribution over large area?

Back 41

1) Continental drift
2) Climate
3) Geography

Front 42

Three main types of spatial distribution in populations?

Back 42

1)Random = even resources so location depends on chance, follow poisson distribution (v / mean=1)
2)Regular = even distribution of resources or territory disputes push them apart (v/m < 1)
3)Clumped = attracted to each other or resource locations (v/n> 1)

Front 43

Measuring spatial distribution?

Back 43

Determine with ratio of variance / mean of the sampling.

Front 44

How do species disperse to islands?

Back 44

1)Float
2)Swim
3)Fly
4)windblown
5)Hitchhike (in stomach of birds for seeds)

Front 45

What increases dispersal to new areas?

Back 45

Novel adaptations, climate changes, new land connections, and I'm BSing

Front 46

Obtaining data on age / size structure of pop?

Back 46

1)Static life table = det % of pop at each age right now
2) Cohort life table = follow a cohort through years to determing % survive each time period

Front 47

Parts of a life table

Back 47

x = age class (interval)
nx = survivors at start of interval
lx = proportion of original surviving
dx = # dieing in that interval (x to x+1)
qx = proportion of individuals dieing by x+1
Fx = fecundity (#offspring born to female in range x)
Ro = net reproductive life = ∑(lx*Fx) if table is just females. If not just fig out how many surviving females.

Front 48

Types of survivorship curves w/ examples for each?

Back 48

Type 1- most die late in life = large mammals, trees
Type 2 - regular deathrate = birds/rodents
Type 3 - lots death early, those that survive live a long time = fish / parasites / plants

Front 49

Performance curve

Back 49

mean density at each quadrat/sample. Tells when pop size estimate has flatlined.

Front 50

Exponential vs Geometric Growth

Back 50

1) Geometric: w/ discrete breeding periods
--insects or annual plants
--lambda = growth rate (if =1 population maintains)
--t = time in generations
--No = initial population

Nt = No(lambda)^t

2)Exponential: continuous reproduction
--r = rate of increase (/ind/unit time) = birthrate - deathrate (if =0 pop maintains)

Nt = No*e^(r*t)

Front 51

Doubling time formula

Back 51

Nt/N0 = e^(rt)

Therefore t=ln(2)/r

Front 52

How to calculate lambda and r

Back 52

lambda = Ro (net reproductive rate) from life table

r = ln(lambda)/T, where T is generation time

Front 53

Human Pop Expectations / info

Back 53

Just crossed 7 billion ppl, growing exponentially but slowing, expected to be at 9billion by 2050 in medium UN prediction. Africa is growing the fastest and Europe the slowest.

Front 54

Elk in yellowstone

Back 54

Wolf reintroduction has caused inducible defenses (altered patterns of aggregation, incr vigilance, and ∆ in habitat selection). It has decreased their reproduction and affected the whole ecosystem through top-down population control.

Front 55

Grizzly Bear in Yellowstone

Back 55

The population has become isolated, but heterozygosity has decreased less than expected due to long generation times and historically low levels.

Front 56

What criteria should be in recovery plans for endangered species?

Back 56

Should focus on role in ecosystem and not just demographics.

Front 57

Density and Frequency in sampling

Back 57

Density = # of individuals / unit area
Frequency = # of samples w/ species/ total samples

Front 58

Factors in ecological footprint? Compare US to rest of world.

Back 58

Amount of land required to support ones lifestyle. US citizens generally have larger footprints. Factors include: Food, shelter, mobility, goods, and services.

Front 59

Life history of wildebeest.

Back 59

Mate (summer - rutting season) and have young (spring) on plains of Serengeti. Each fall start a huge migration toward lake victoria then to northern plains the back to SW each spring. Die from biotic factors (predetors - mainly young, grass quantity, disease) and abiotic factors (getting lost - young, rains, floods, fires, drought). Generally have a Type 1 survivorship curve. Mating system is polygamous.

Front 60

How is paleoecological evidence gathered?

Back 60

1)Natural sources
-ice cores
-tree rings
-coral layers
-lake/bog cores (sedimentation)
2)Documentary/Human sources
-diaries
-land surveys
-photographs
-weather records

Front 61

Dedrochonology?

Back 61

Is tree-ring dating. Uses cross-dating(matching patterns from a number of trees to create a master calender.) Sensitive rings where really narrow or broad are the best. Complacent rings are harder to date.