Bio 242 - Unit 4

Front 1

Hypothalamus

Back 1

located above pituitary, hypothalamus controls pituitary, synthesizes hormones and transfers them to the posterior pituitary to be stored until hypothalamus gives relasing signal, connected to posterior pituitary by nervous tract, produces signaling hormones telling anterior pituitary when to release hormones, connected to A. pituitary by portal system (vein, capillary, vein)

Front 2

Posterior Pituitary

Back 2

stores hormones from hypothalamus, includes ADH (anitdiuretic hormone) and oxytocin

Front 3

Anterior Pituitary

Back 3

manufactures its own hormones until told to release by hypothalamus, includes LH (leutinizing hormone), FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) ATCH (adrenocoricotropic hormone) PRL (prolactin), TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone), and GH (growth hormone)

Front 4

ADH (antidiuretic hormone)

Back 4

peptide, promotes retention of water by the kidneys, regulated by salt/water balance

Front 5

Oxytocin

Back 5

peptide, stimulates contraction in uterus and mammary gland cells, regulated by nervous system

Front 6

GH (growth hormone)

Back 6

protein, stimulates growth of tissues (especially bone) and metabolic functions, regulated by hypothalamic hormones

Front 7

PRL (prolactin)

Back 7

protein, stimulates milk production and secretion, regulated by hypothalamic hormones

Front 8

FSH (follicle stimulating hormone)

Back 8

glycoprotein, stimulates production of ova and sperm, regulated by hypothalamic hormones

Front 9

LH (leutinizing hormone)

Back 9

glycoproteins, stimulates ovaries and testes, regulated by hypothalamic hormones

Front 10

TSH (thyroid stimulating hormone)

Back 10

glycoprotein, stimulates thyroid gland, regulated by hypothalamic hormones, also thyroxine levels in blood by negative feedback

Front 11

ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormones)

Back 11

peptide, stimulates adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids, regulated by hypothalamic hormones, also glucocoricoids by negative feedback

Front 12

Thyroid gland

Back 12

found in front of neck, two lobes, composed of fluid filled follicles, three hormones: T3 (triiodothyronine), T4 (thyroxine), and calcitonin,

Front 13

Colloid

Back 13

hollow area created by circular arrangement of follicles where the thyroid hormones are stored

Front 14

T3 and T4 (triiodothyronine and thyroxine)

Back 14

amines, stimulates and maintains metabolic processes, regulated by TSH from the anterior pituitary

Front 15

Calcitonin

Back 15

peptide, decreases blood calcium levels, regulated by calcium levels in the blood, stimulates osteoblasts

Front 16

PTH (parathyroid hormone)

Back 16

amine, increases blood calcium levels, regulated by calcium levels in blood, stimulates osteoclasts

Front 17

Alpha cells

Back 17

in pancreas, release glucagon

Front 18

Beta cells

Back 18

in pancreas, release insulin

Front 19

Islets of Langerhans

Back 19

areas of pancreas where alpha and beta cells are found

Front 20

Glucagon

Back 20

protein, raises blood glucose levels, regulated by glucose leves in blood

Front 21

Insulin

Back 21

protein, lowers blood glucose levels, regulated by blood glucose levels

Front 22

Diabetes Mellitus

Back 22

caused by insulin deficiency, type I (juvenile) and type II, hampers protein and fat synthesis

Front 23

Adrenal glands

Back 23

adrenal medulla and cortex, release catecholamines from medulla (epinephrine and norepinephrine) release gluco- and mineral-corticoids from cortex

Front 24

Epinephrine/norepinephrine

Back 24

anime, raise blood glucose levels, increase metabolic activities, and constrict blood vessels, regulated by nervous system

Front 25

Glucocorticoids

Back 25

steriod, raise blood glucose, regulated by ACTH

Front 26

MIneralcorticoids

Back 26

steriod, promote reabsorption of Na+ and excretion of K+ in the kidneys, regulated by blood K+ levels,

Front 27

Pineal gland

Back 27

center of brain attached to thalamus, secretes melatonin, controls biological rhythms,

Front 28

Melatonin

Back 28

amine, involved in biological rhythms, regulated by light and dark cycles

Front 29

Thymus

Back 29

behind sternum between lungs, releases thymosin

Front 30

Thymosin

Back 30

peptide, stimulates T cells

Front 31

Testes

Back 31

male gonads which secrete androgens, formation of spermatozoa, composed of ~ 250 lobules

Front 32

Ovaries

Back 32

female gonads which secrete progesterone and estrogens

Front 33

Androgens

Back 33

steriod, support sperm formation, promote development and maintenance of male secondary sex characteristics, regulated by FSH and LH

Front 34

Progesterone

Back 34

steriod, promote uterine lining growth, regulated by FSH and LH

Front 35

Estrogen

Back 35

steroid, stimulate uterine lining growth, promote development and maintenance of female 2ndary sex characteristics, regulated by blood K+ levels

Front 36

Seminiferous tubules

Back 36

created by the subdivision of each lobule in the testes by connective tissue, lined with germinal epithelium which includes supporting cells and spermatogonia (undergo mitosis and meiosis to become sperm cells), made up of sertoli cells,

Front 37

formation of sperm

Back 37

spermatogonia develops into one spermatocyte which undergoes meiosis I to become 2 secondary spermatocytes which EACH undergo meiosis II to become 2 spermatids (4 total) which develop into mature sperm

Front 38

Epididiymus

Back 38

tightly coiled tube, 6m long, connects seminiferous tubules to the vas deferens, houses immature sperm,

Front 39

Vas deferens

Back 39

muscular tube, 45 cm long, passes through lower abdominal wall ending behind bladder, joins with a duct of the seminal vesicle to fomr the ejaculatory duct which passes through the prostate and joins the urethra, smooth muscles contract to move sperm to the urethra

Front 40

Seminal vesicle

Back 40

sac-like structure attached to the vas deferens, consists of a number of secretory tubules, secretes alkaline fluids to neutralize acidity of sperm and vaginal secretions, most of fluid in semen is made here,

Front 41

Prostate gland

Back 41

surrounds urethra, found below bladder, secretes milky fluid that neutralizes seminal fluid and acidic conditions of the vagina

Front 42

Bulbourethral (Cowper's) gland

Back 42

two small glands beneath the prostate, secretes a lubricant for the penis during sexual reproduction,

Front 43

Semen

Back 43

fluid composed of mature sperm and secretions from the seminal vesicles, prostate, and bulbourethral glands

Front 44

Scrotum

Back 44

pouch of skin and subcutaneous skin that encloses testes, allows testes to remain outside of body

Front 45

Penis

Back 45

specialized erectile tissue,

Front 46

Baculum

Back 46

bone in some species to help stiffen the penis

Front 47

Glans penis

Back 47

tip of penis, surrounded by hood of tissue called prepuce or foreskin

Front 48

GnRH (gonadotropin releasing hormone)

Back 48

when released by hypothalamus = male body begins to mature, stimulates anterior pituitary to relase FSH and LH

Front 49

Ovaries

Back 49

production of female sex cells (ova) and sex hormones

Front 50

Oogenesis

Back 50

millions of primordial follicles in embryo, some disappear leaving one million which develop into one oogonium, this develops into one oocyte. this all happens before birth, frozen in prophase I early meiosis I until puberty. once a month, 1 oocyte undergoes meiosis to produce 1 secondary oocyte and one primary polar body, secondary oocyte is frozen in metaphase until penetrated by sperm, penetration causes to resume meiosis II and produce an ovum and a secondary polar body

Front 51

Ovum

Back 51

oocyte after penetration of sperm, NOT A ZYGOTE, plasmogamy,nuclei not yet fused.

Front 52

Primary follicle

Back 52

a structure housing the primary oocyte and several follicular cells which are epithelial cells that surround the oocyte

Front 53

Ovulation

Back 53

rupturing of primary follicle and release of secondary oocyte (ovum) into the fallopian tube, follicular cells and follucular fluids released as well

Front 54

Fallopian tubes (oviducts)

Back 54

openings near ovaries, collects ovum and transports it to uterus, line with tiny finger like projections called fimbriae, sweep ovum into oviduct (fallopian tubes), tubes are lined with ciliated cells which work with peristaltic contractions to move the ovum to the uterus

Front 55

Uterus and cervix

Back 55

organ that receives embryo, sustains the embryo throughout development, cervix is the neck of the uterus which opens into the vagina,

Front 56

Vagina

Back 56

opening in female that leads to the uterus, receives penis and semen during intercourse, conveys secretions of uterus, and transports offspring during birth

Front 57

Vestibule

Back 57

regjion of female crotch where vaginal and urethral openings are found

Front 58

Labia (minora and majora)

Back 58

slender skin folds that surround vestibule (minora) and thick fatty ridges that surround minora (majora)

Front 59

Clitoris

Back 59

short shaft of erectile tissue

Front 60

prepuce

Back 60

protective hood over clitoris

Front 61

Bartholin's glands

Back 61

produce mucus into vestibule near vagina to keep it lubricated and to facilitate coitus

Front 62

Ovarian Cycle

Back 62

1. follicular phase: follicles grow gradually producing greater levels of estrogen in response to FSH and LH, ends when ovulation occurs
2. Ovulation: occurs when anterior pituitary releases a large amount of LH, FSH and LH increase due to +feedback, increasing levels of estrogen cause increase in GnRH, LH, and FSH, which cause more estrogen (+feedback), this loop causes a surge of LH that leads to ovulation
3. Luteal phase: follicular cells released by ovulation give rise to corpus luteum which secretes estrogen with hight levels of progesterone, this causes the uterine lining to become more vascularized and glandular (corpus luteum degenerates and is replaced by connective tissue b/c of less estrogen and progesterone levels if egg is not fertilized, otherwise the developing embryo produce human chorionic gonadotropin which maintains progesterone levels by the corpus luteum for several months)

Front 63

Menstrual Cycle

Back 63

1. Menstrual phase - lining of uterus is shed, lasts several days,
2. Proliferative phase - lasts 10 days, endometrium regenerates and proliferates,
3. Secretory phase - lasts 2 weeks, endometrium continues to thicken, become vascularized and glandular

Front 64

Nervous system functions

Back 64

sensation, integration, motor functions

Front 65

Afferent neurons

Back 65

neurons that carry nerve impulses to interneurons of the CNS

Front 66

Integration

Back 66

higher centers in the brain bring together information delivered from afferent sensory neurons and make decisions

Front 67

Interneurons

Back 67

connect afferent sensory neurons to efferent motor neurons

Front 68

Neuroglia

Back 68

supporting cells of the nervous system

Front 69

soma

Back 69

cell body of neuron

Front 70

myelin sheath

Back 70

lipoprotein found in neuroglial cells that wraps around the axon, makes signals faster, produced from Schwann cells in PNS, produced from oligodendrocytes in CNS (create white matter), gaps are called nodes of Ranvier

Front 71

Nodes of Ranvier

Back 71

gaps in myelin sheath, causes saltatory conduction meaning nerve impulses jump between Nodes = faster

Front 72

Action potentials

Back 72

changes in electrical current (depolarization)

Front 73

Chemical synapse

Back 73

1. A.P. depolarizes presynaptic membrane,
2. opens voltage-gated Ca2+ channels
3. Ca2+ triggers vessicles to move to membrane
4. vessicles exocytose neurotransmitters
5. NTs bind to receptor to open ligand-gated ion channels
6. receptor releases NT and channel closes

Front 74

Potassium, K+

Back 74

moves more freely through ungated channel, moves faster

Front 75

Na+/K+ pump

Back 75

active transport protein to pump Na+ and K+ across cell membrane, moved across concentration gradients, 3 Na+ = out of cell for every 2 K+ = into cell, more K+ leaves than Na+ enters

Front 76

Resting potential of most cells

Back 76

-70mV b/c of Na+/K+ pump, stimuli cause changes in this

Front 77

E = 62mV (log {[ion] outside}/{[ion]inside})

Back 77

Nernst equation of membrane equilibrium potential (E) for one ion of net charge 1+

Front 78

hyperpolarization

Back 78

causes resting potential to become more negative

Front 79

depolarization

Back 79

causes resting potential to become less negative

Front 80

threshold potential

Back 80

minimum amount of depolarization (stimuli) that must occur before an action potential can occur, threshold potential value for most cells = 55 mV, when reached voltage gated Na+ channels open causing Na+ ions to diffuse into the cell causing depolarization of the cell causing more Na+ channels to open and further depolarization (+feedback), when reaches +30mV, K+ channels open and cell potential repolarizing (returns to negative state)

Front 81

subthreshold potential

Back 81

depolarization lower that threshold potential

Front 82

potential summation

Back 82

potential changes from multiple sources have additive effects, can achieve action potential

Front 83

Refractory period

Back 83

period of time between depolarization and repolarization of the cell during which no additional action potentials can occur, like resting stage

Front 84

Nerve impulse

Back 84

a wave of action potentials that transverse the length of the axon, rate increased by myelin sheath and increase in diameter of axon, occur in all-or-none fashion

Front 85

EPSP

Back 85

excitatory postsynaptic potential, causes depolarization of postsynaptic cell by increasing Na+ permeability, any given EPSP is not enough for threshold, but together could be

Front 86

IPSP

Back 86

inhibitory postsynaptic potential, causes hyperpolarization of postsynaptic cell by decreasing Na+ permeability, can work against EPSPs to prevent action potentials

Front 87

parasympathetic autonomic nervous systems

Back 87

resting and digesting, uses acetylcholine

Front 88

sympathetic autonomic nervous systems

Back 88

fight or flight, uses norepinephrine

Front 89

Lobes of brain

Back 89

occipital - vision, visual association area
parietal - somatosensory cortex, speech, taste, somatosensory association area, reading,
temporal - smell, hearing, auditory association area
frontal - frontal association area, speech, motor cortex

Front 90

Hydrostatic skeleton

Back 90

incompressible fluid held under pressure in a closed compartment, found in flatworms cnidarians nematodes and annelids, movement from peristaltic contractions, lacks hard parts

Front 91

Exoskeleton

Back 91

molluscs and arthropods, calcium carbonate (molluscs), strong but not flexible. Chitin; cuticle is segmented, strong and flexible (arthropods) skeleton on outside.

Front 92

Endoskeleton

Back 92

spicules (sponges) and bones and cartilages (mammals), hard parts buried

Front 93

Sarcomere

Back 93

fundamental unit of muscle, composed of filaments (actin and myosin)

Front 94

Actin

Back 94

thin filaments in a sarcomere

Front 95

Myosin

Back 95

Thick filaments in a sarcomere

Front 96

Acetylcholine

Back 96

released for muscle contraction

Front 97

Troponin

Back 97

when Ca binds to _______, causes tropomyosin to move, which exposes myosin binding sites on actin

Front 98

Motor unit

Back 98

a motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it controls

Front 99

Ecology

Back 99

study of the relationship of the organism and its environment

Front 100

Density

Back 100

number of animals per unit of area (emergent properties of a population)

Front 101

N(t) = N(o)e^rt

Back 101

general relationship between population size and number of generations, exponential growth

Front 102

N(t)

Back 102

number of individuals in the population at time t

Front 103

N(o)

Back 103

initial number of individuals in the population

Front 104

r

Back 104

the exponential rate of population change (increase or decrease), r = b-d, or r = b - d + I - E

Front 105

t

Back 105

time spanning from the initial population to time t

Front 106

I

Back 106

immigration, movement of individuals INTO the population

Front 107

E

Back 107

emigration, movement of individuals OUT of the population

Front 108

Biotic potential

Back 108

ability of the population to increase in size under optimal conditions, AKA intrinsic rate of increase, achieved when age distribution remains constant, represented by r(max)

Front 109

r(max)

Back 109

rate of population increase under optimal conditions

Front 110

Logistic model

Back 110

accounts for environmental resistance, when environmental resistances are low, it accounts for exponential growth, when resistances are high, it represents tapering growth in the population. Also exhibits stabilization as population approaches K, shown by N(t) = r(o)N [(K-N)/K], S-shaped curve

Front 111

N(t) = r(o)N [(K-N)/K]

Back 111

logistic growth

Front 112

r(o)

Back 112

instantaneous rate of increase at t=0

Front 113

N

Back 113

population size before t - 1

Front 114

[(K-N)/K]

Back 114

represents proportion of unutilized resources

Front 115

Density dependent factors

Back 115

factors that influence population growth and ARE based on the density (size) of the population (disease, competition, predation)

Front 116

Density independent factors

Back 116

factors that influence population growth and ARE NOT based on density (size) of the population (abiotic factors: flooding, fire)

Front 117

LIfe history traits

Back 117

traits that affect an organism's schedule of reproduction and chance of survival, there is a tradeoff in the distribution of limited resources between the conflicting processes of reproduction and growth

Front 118

Natural selection

Back 118

optimizes/improves the distribution of resources to maximize fitness (affects life history)

Front 119

fitness

Back 119

genetic contribution the organism passes to the next generation, the number of offspring the organism produces

Front 120

r and K selection

Back 120

life history strategies related to the logistic model

Front 121

r-selected species

Back 121

produce large numbers of offspring without investing in any single progeny (offspring), these species focus on the exponential phase of the logistic model, r; small, short-lived, early-maturing individuals, provide little parental care to offspring, produce many small young, employ semelparity

Front 122

K-selected species

Back 122

produce small numbers of offspring and have relatively large investments in them, these species focus on the [(K-N)/K] portion in which N is at/near K, not much room for population size increase; large, long-lived, late-maturing, provide large amount of parental care to offspring, produce few large young, employ iteroparity

Front 123

Semelparity

Back 123

produce many offspring all at once

Front 124

Iteroparity

Back 124

produce offspring throughout lifetime of individual in small numbers

Front 125

demography

Back 125

study of population characteristics and changes such as density and distribution

Front 126

replacement-level fertility rate

Back 126

average number of children a couple must have to replace themselves, can be higher than 2 due to death or infertility of offspring, child bearing years of average woman = 15-44

Front 127

doubling time

Back 127

time required for the population to double in size, determined by the "Rule of 70" (DT is roughly = to 70 divided by the rate of population increase; DT = 70/r, remember r is a percentage, if r = 3%, then use .03)

Front 128

Age distribution

Back 128

number of % of persons at each age class in a population, most important age classes = pre-productive (0-14), productive (15-44), and Post-productive (45-death)

Front 129

ecological community

Back 129

set of all the interacting species in a given habitat

Front 130

community level interactions

Back 130

interactions between species in an ecological community

Front 131

keystone species

Back 131

species that aid in the prevention of competition among species by maintaining diversity by lowering the population numbers of competing species in the community

Front 132

niche partitioning

Back 132

divvying up different niche components such that the niches of ecologically similar species are not perfectly overlapping, prevents competition

Front 133

character displacement

Back 133

divergence in the characteristics of similar species in areas where their ranges overlap, darwin's finches

Front 134

character release

Back 134

opposite of character displacement, two species may become more similar in their characteristics due to the lack of competition between them

Front 135

Trophic levels

Back 135

representations of the feeding relationships between the species within a community, one trophic level is all of the organisms that are the same number of feeding levels away from the ultimate source of energy in the community (generally the sun)

Front 136

ecosystem

Back 136

ecological community (species), their nonliving environment and the interactions of the species within the community

Front 137

10% rule

Back 137

in energy transfer, approximately 10% of high quality chemical energy is transferred to the next trophic level after consumption, other 90% is lost as low quality heat, limits trophic levels to 4-6 levels

Front 138

pyramid of numbers

Back 138

number of organisms found at each trophic level, can be inverted

Front 139

pyramid of biomass

Back 139

amount of matter per unit area tied up in each trophic level, can be inverted

Front 140

pyramid of energy

Back 140

amount of energy tied up in each trophic level, CANNOT be inverted

Front 141

A E I O U

Back 141

five reasons we need to conserve species:
A: aesthetic
E: ecological
I: intellectual
O: obligatory
U: utilitarian

Front 142

extinction

Back 142

local and global, four reasons: environmental risks (changes in environment), natural catastrophe, genetic risk (reduction of fitness due to genetic drift and interbreeding mostly in smaller populations), and anthropomorphic activity (human activity)

Front 143

H I P P O

Back 143

how humans affect biodiversity:
H: habitat fragmentation
I: introduced and invasive species
P: pollution and human-induced climate change
P: population growth
O: overconsumption of resources

Front 144

parthenogenesis

Back 144

where an unfertilized egg (ovum, ova) can give rise to another individual, (in bees, unfertilized eggs = male drones, fertilized eggs= females)

Front 145

watershed

Back 145

area of land drained by one stream, contain info about health of surrounding area

Front 146

Oxygen cycle

Back 146

part of all other biogeochemical cycles, largest compartment of oxygen is earth's crust, then atmosphere;

Front 147

Ozone

Back 147

oxidant, toxic at ground level, shield at atmosphere level

Front 148

UV

Back 148

shorter wavelengths, more energy than visible light, produced by sun, split into 3 bands (UVA, UVB, AND UVC) increasingly dangerous

Front 149

CFCs

Back 149

used as propellants, refridgerants, in foam, rise above o3 layer and are dstroyed by sun, release Cl, takes years to disappears, single molecule can destroy thousands of O3 molecules,

Front 150

Water cycle

Back 150

1/5 of sunlight is used to power the cycle, 2.5% of H20 is freshwater in polar ice caps,

Front 151

Carbon cycle

Back 151

comes in form of CO2 fossil fuels, increasing co2 levels = increase in temp.,

Front 152

Nitrogen cycle

Back 152

majority of N2 cannot be used, bacteria can fix it, useable in amino acid form, human activities release nitrogne into atmosphere, most affected cycle by humans,

Front 153

Phosphorus cycle

Back 153

no appreciable component in atmosphere, major limiting factor in most ecosystems, primarily found as phosphate and does not undergo redox reactions like nigtrogen and sulfur, sources: rocks and bird guano,

Front 154

Eutrophication

Back 154

excessive fertilizers, excess nitrogen leads to blue-green algae which take up all oxygen and kill fish and plants in water

Front 155

Sulfur cycle and acid rain

Back 155

undergoes redox rxns like nitrogen cycle, nitrogen oxides and sulfur oxides react with water vapor and oxygen to form nitric and sulfuric acids, which can travel long distances and are deposited with rain

Front 156

acid rain

Back 156

ph below 5.6, often found in lakes and streams which are not buffered, good buffer example is limestone (prevalent in Kentucky)

Front 157

Interspecific interactions

Back 157

interactions involving 2 or more different species, +=benefit, - =harm, 0 = neither