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186 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Ecology
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study of all complex interrelationships referred to by Darwin as the conditions for the struggle of existence
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Principles of Ecology
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1) Organisms have specific roles
2) Eco processes = time and space scales 3) Ecos governed by gen physical and bio principles 4) Evolutionary processes affect ecosystems |
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Ecology author
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Haekle (1870)
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Organisms - processes
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survival and reproduction; unit of natural selection
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population - eco processes
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pop dynamics, unit of evolution
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community - eco processes
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interaction among pops
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ecosystem - eco processes
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E flux; cycling of nutrients
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biosphere - eco processes
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global processes
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Role in Eco System
Plants |
Photoautotrophs
-fix organic carbon |
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Role in Eco System
Animals |
Heterotrophs
- feed on other organisms + remains |
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Role in Eco System
Bacterial/Achaebacteria |
cycle elements through ecosystem
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Role in Eco System
Fungi |
Heterotrophs
-recycling function |
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habitat
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physical setting where organism lives
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niche
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role of organism in eco system
- space, body size, food type, active period, etc. |
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fundamental niche
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listing of organism's idealized reqs
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realized niche
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shrunken version of fundamental niche
Why? presence of other species |
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Species Richness
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How many species are there?
Total # of species in a given area |
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Evenness
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uniformity in abundance of species
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How many species are there?
Diversity Index |
- contribution of each species weighted against its relative abundance
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Indices: Simpson's Index
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Dominance indices
which species is the most common |
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Indices: Shannon-Weiner Index
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Information indices (H)
measures evenness Low diversity --> H close to 0 High diversity --> H near 1 |
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scale
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dimension in space or time in which variation is perceived
(months, days, hours, years, millennia, etc) |
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dynamic steady state
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inputs and outputs balanced
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Eco Principles
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1) Functions w/in physical and chemical constraints
2) Exchange materials + E w/ surroundings |
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Abiotic factors
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- temp
- water - light availability - substrate type (soil, rock sediment OR chemistry, mineral composition) |
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Periodic cycles
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rotation of earth on axis (day)
revolution of moon (tides) revolution of earth around sun (seasonal) |
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Annual Temps correlated w/...
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Latitude
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Solstice
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north hemi towards sun -- summer or winter
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Equinox
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sun hits equator directly
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Cells of air circulation
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dry belts ~30*N at at poles
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Westerlies
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mid-latitudes air circulation
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Trade Winds
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Tropical Latitudes (up to 30* N and S)
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Intertropical Convergence Zone
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warm moist air rising in tropics - lots of rainfall
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Subtropical High Pressure Belts
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cold dry air descends to surface = desert conditions
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upwelling
(global oceanic circulation) |
any vertical movement of water
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Gulf Stream
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Affects temp (high) in UK, France and Scandinavia --> same as at Canada
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El Nino
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Tropical Pacific disruption of oceanic atmosphere
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Local Variation b/c of Features
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mountains = rainfall on one side
large water = moderate climate |
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Adiabatic cooling
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decrease in air temp w/ increase in elevation
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biome
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terrestrial environment defined by growth forms of its plants
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Whittaker's Biomes
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chart for vegetation structure based on Temp + Precipitation
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Tundra
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Arctic, high elevations
animals migrate or go dormant vegetation low-growing perennials |
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Boreal/Temperate Evergreen Forest
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long, cold winters + short summers
evergreens dominant dominant mammals = moose, hares |
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Temperate Deciduous Forest
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Precipitation EVEN, temp VARIABLE
veg = deciduous trees |
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Temperate Grasslands
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dry - hot summers, cold winters
agriculture! veg = grazing, fire |
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Cold Desert
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continental interiors
veg = low-lying shrubs plants = seeds = birds |
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Hot Desert
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veg = succulents
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Mediterranean (Chaparral)
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West sides of continents
adapted to fire supports lots of rodents |
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Savanna (Thorn Forest)
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equatorial sides of hot deserts
veg - arcacia |
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Tropical Deciduous Forest
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most cleared by agriculture + cattle grazing
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Tropical Evergreen Forest
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equatorial region + high rain
HIGHEST SPECIES RICHNESS |
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Ocean Zone: Benthic
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orgs live in/on sediments or rocky surfaces
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Ocean Zone: Aphotic
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no light, a little food sinks from above
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Ocean Zone: Photic
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light fuels photosynthesis
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Coastal zone
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intertidal zone
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Aquatic Biomes
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Lakes
Wetlands Streams and Rivers Estuaries Intertidal zones oceanic pelagic biome |
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Advances changing Biogeography
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1. Continental Drift
2. Phylogenetic taxonomy 3. Theory of Island Biogeography |
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Wallace
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Biogeography; Wallace's Line in Pacific --> shifting continents
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biogeography
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study of patterns of distributions of pops, species + communities
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Biogeography regions
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Neartic - NA
NeoTropical - SA Palearctic - Asia Oriental - India Ethiopian - African Antarctic Australasian |
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Wegner's Evidence for Continental Drift
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1. Geometric fit of coastlines
2. Alignment of geologic features |
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Theory of Plate Tectonics
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explains origins and destruction of earth's plates and lateral movements
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Continental Drift Evidence
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1. Marine Geology - mid ocean ridges
2. Geologic - deposition strata 3. Paleoclimate - glacial deposits 4. Paleontological - fossil record anomalies 5. Paleomagenetism |
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Vicariance
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Discontinuous ranges
- appearance of physical barrier splitting species |
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dispersal
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Discontinuous ranges
- organisms cross an existing barrier + est a population |
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Biotic Interchange
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land masses come together
- asia + north america |
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Equilibrium Theory of Island Biogeography
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+ Immigration rate decreases as island diversity increases
+ Extinction increases as island diversity increases |
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Behavior
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everything an animals does and how it does them
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Genetically Influenced Behaviors
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Fixed Action Patterns
Directed Movements Imprinting (mnem: females dig inches) |
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Environmentally Influenced Behaviors
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Social Influence
Associative Learning Spatial Learning Habituation (mnem: Sarah, always share happily) |
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Environmentally Influenced Behaviors
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Social Influence
Associative Learning Spatial Learning Habituation (mnem: Sarah, always share happily) |
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Studying behavior examines... (4)
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Control
Develop/evolve Contribute to survival and reproductive success |
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Source of Behavior
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Genes + Environment
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Proximate Question
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"How"
Ex: How a bee finds way to hive? How does a fish swim? |
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Ultimate Question
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Why? -- evolutinary significance of behavior
Ex: Why NS favors one behavior and not the other? |
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Hypothesis
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merge Proximate + Ultimate Questions
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Hypothesis
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link Proximate + Ultimate Questions
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Behavioral Scientists
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Lorenz, Tinbergen, von Frisch
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Tinbergen's 4 Questions about Behavior
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1) Mechanistic basis?
2) How animal dev't influences? 3) Evolutionary history? 4) Contribution to survival + reproduction? |
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Fixed Action Pattern
"Innate Behavior" |
instinctive behavioral sequence triggered by sign stimulus and runs to completion
Ex: Goose + egg return to nest; Stickleback fish attack anything red in territory |
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Directed Movements
"Innate Behavior" |
towards or away from a stimulus
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Kinesis
(Directed movements) |
change in rate of activity in response to envt condition
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Taxis
(Directed movements) |
Positive taxis: movement toward
Negative taxis: movement away ...from a stimulus |
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Migration
(Directed movements) |
large group movement at a temporal impetus
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Imprinting
("Innate + Learned") |
gen irreversible; genetic necessity to choose mimic then copy behavior
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Sensitive Period
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when imprinting can occur
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Social Influences on other Behaviors
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(1) Aggressiveness - mouse experiment; took behavior of new social group
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Learning
("Learned") |
modification of behavior based on specific experiences
Simple --> Complex |
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Habituation
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loss of responsiveness to stimuli that convey little important info
Simple Learning Behavior |
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Spatial Learning
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*Environmental influence
remember based on spatial landmarks |
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Associative Learning
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associating one feature of environment with another
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Classical Conditioning
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arbitrary stimulus associated w/ a reward or punishment
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Operant Conditioning
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animal learns to associate one of its own behaviors w/ a reward or punishment - avoid or repeat
ex: wolf attack porquipine |
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signal
(Animal Communication) |
a behavior that causes a change in the behavior of another animal
--> Chemical, Visual, Auditory, Tactile, Electrical |
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Animal Communication
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signals that save E and reduce risks
Aggressive and territorial display |
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Chemical Communication
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pheromones
Non-sexual: mark territory/ belongings, alarms Sexual: mate availability |
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When do Chemical Communication evolves?
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- dense vegetation
- animals dispersed - no mechanisms to make sounds |
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Acoustic Communication
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partially learned or genetically learned
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Evidence for Acoustic Communication
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males reared in isolation produce THEIR species' call
Hybrid (raised in isolation) = call components from both species |
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Animal Cognition
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ability to perceive, store, process, and use information
* Problem Solving * |
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Cognition Devt
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1) Solve probs by watching others
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Behavioral Traits can evolve by naturals selection
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ex: snakes in CA - grubs vs animals
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Optimal Foraging Theory
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Compromise b/w E spent searching + E/nutrition gained
* Benefit & Cost * |
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Sexual Selection
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mate choice + mate behavior
1) Seek and attract mates 2) competing for 3) choosing among potential mates |
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Intrasexual selection
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competition between males!
- selects for weapons or competitive behaviors |
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Intersexual selection
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competition b/w males to be chosen by females can "select" for colors, ornaments, behaviors
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Evolve Mate Choice + Mating Behavior
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1) Parental Investment (females>males)
2) Females expected to be choosy 3) needs of young |
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Altricial babies
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both sexes needed to feed young = Monogamy
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Precocial babies
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one sex can care for a feed young better = Polygamy (polygyny)
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certainty of paternity
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males may try to ensure young are theirs...
(1) guarding females (2) producing large vol of sperm (3) remove rival sperm from reproductive tract of female |
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Presence of Male
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More parental certainty = more male involvement
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Altruistic beahviors
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reduce individuals fitness but increase fitness of other pop members
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Inclusive fitness
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total effect an individual has on passing on its genes by...
(1) produce own offspring (2) provide aid to close relatives |
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Hamilton's Rule + Kin Selection
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predicts when NS favors altruistic acts among related individuals
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Coefficient of Relatedness (r)
OR Probability of Inclusive Fitness |
Sharing Genes...
2 siblings: 0.5 aunt, niece: 0.25 1st cousins: 0.125 |
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Hamilton's Rule
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rB > C
r: coefficient of relatedness B: benefit of action to person C: cost of performing action |
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Kin Selection Examples
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- Bees: daughters of queen sterile (worker bees) - share 1/2 genes
- Mole Rats: non-reproductive individuals are descendants of siblings of queen |
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Tit-for-Tat Strategy
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individual treats another in same way treated last time met
- begin being cooperative ("altruistic") Ex: Vampire Bats |
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Population
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group of organisms of 1 species that interbreed in same place at same time
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Population Characteristics
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- Size
- Density - Dispersion - Sex Ratio - Age Structure - Schedules of survival and reproduction |
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Population Size measurements
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Directly = census
Indirectly = extrapolation (density x A/Vol occupied) |
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Population Size measurements
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Directly = census
Indirectly = extrapolation (density x A/Vol occupied) |
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Extrapolation of Pop Size
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Mark-recapture Analysis
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Clumped Distribution
(pop dispersion) |
groups or patches (gen reflect resource availability, aggregation behavior, etc)
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Uniform Distribution
(pop dispersion) |
spacing among individuals constant (competition among individuals --> territoriality)
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Random Distribution
(pop dispersion) |
space varies randomly
reflects homogeneity of res and weak interactions |
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Populations are...
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HETEROGENEOUS
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Difference in Population
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genetic variations
2 sexes different life stages different sizes |
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Age Structure
(pop age structure) |
Rapid Growth = many youngsters
Slow = flat-sided 'pyramid' Decreasing = low birth rate, pinched bottom |
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Survival & Mortality Display
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follow cohorts through lives
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Death Rate
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(# alive @ start of year) / (# of deaths during year)
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Number Alive at Start of Year
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# alive at start of previous year - # of deaths during year
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Proportion Alive at Start of Year
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# alive at start of current year / # alive @ start of 1st year
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Survivorship
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ratio of those who live at each year
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Type 1
Survivorship Curve |
mortality rate increase later in life
Ex: large mammals (humans) |
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Type 2
Survivorship Curve |
mortality rate constant over life
Ex: some birds, reptiles, squirrels |
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Type 3
Survivorship Curve |
mortality rate highest in young
Ex: marine organisms w/ tiny larvae |
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Iteoparity
(breeding frequency) |
Repeated reproduction
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Semelparity
(breeding frequency) |
breed once or briefly upon maturity then die -- "big bang breeding"
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Reproduction schedule variables
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- breeding frequency
- litter size |
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b = B/N
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b = birth rate
- number of births per individual per time (per capita birth rate, per year) |
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d = D/N
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d = death rate
- # of deaths per individual per time (N = # of individuals at time period beginning; D = # of deaths in time period) |
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Constant birth rate + smaller constant death rate
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accelerating pace and without limit
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"r" is large when...
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- mothers mature young
- mothers have large litters - mothers have freq litters - females survive at high rates when young |
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Limits on Logistic Growth
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1) Resource limitations
2) increase mortality 3) reduce population growth rate |
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Limiters on Logistic Growth
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a) limiting resource
b) density dependence: pop size affects other pop characteristics c) Carrying capacity: maximum sustainable individuals |
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Carrying Capacity
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"K"
- (k-n)/k = proportion of environment available |
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Logistic Growth Model
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dN/dT = rmax * N (k-N/K)
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Managing Populations
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- reproductive rates
Ex: cane toads in Australia (cane beetles in sugar cane) |
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Ecological Footprint
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area of impact on environment
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Community -- Clements's Discrete Unit
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"Holistic" concept - only understand in terms of contribution to ecosystem
"superorganisms" - species connnected - niche - enhance interdependent functioning - discrete entities w/ recognizable boundaries |
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Community -- Gleason's Loose Assemblage of Species
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"Individualistic Concept" (no organization at species level)
- community = "Fortuitous association" 1) component species together largely by accident 2) no distinct boundary for community meeting |
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Middle Ground of Community Concept
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1) Individualistic view - most interactions are antagonistic, loose assemblage
2) Holistic - attributes of community arise from interactions among species |
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Trophic levels
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based on E consumption
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Types of Trophic levels
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- autotrophs (primary producers)
- heterotrophs - primary consumer - herbivores etc. - secondary consumers:organisms eating herbivores - tertiary consumers: orgs eating secondary consumers - Detritivores: decomposers - omnivores > get E from +1 Trophic level |
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Trophic Level Realtionships
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Food Chain
Food Web |
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Food Web Complexity = Stability of community?
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should lead to stability --> however, time lags b/w death of last animal and complicated connection = DESTABILIZE
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Connectedness webs
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feeding realtionships
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E flow webs
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- ecosystem viewpoint, flux of E b/w species
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Functional Webs
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importance of pop in respect to survival or death of nearby species.
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"Top-down" Control
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change in tertiary+ consumer about game availability?
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"Bottom-up Control)
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change in low trophic level community
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trophic cascade
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top down collapse b/w a species goes missing
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E Transfer b/w Trophic Levels
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~5-20% at each level consecutively
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Interspecific (+/-) Interactions
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Predation
Herbivory Parasitism Disease |
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Predators
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catch individuals + consume them, remove prey from population
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Parasites
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consume parts of host
- internal (disease) or external - may negatively affect host but not remove from population |
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Parasitoids
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consume all living tissue of host --> kill them
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Herbivores
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eat whole or part of plants
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Grazers
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Herbivores
eat grasses and herbaeous vegetation |
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Browsers
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Herbivores
eat woody vegetation |
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Detritivores
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consume dead organic material
- have no direct effect on "host" population - imp in nutrient recycling |
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Predator Adaptations
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1. Size (larger)
2. Cooperative hunting of larger game 3. Form + Function match diet 4. Digestive tract (multiple vessels) 5. Grasping + tearing functions |
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Animal
Prey Escape Mechanisms |
1. swift
2. early predator detection 3. hide/seek refuge |
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Plant
Prey Escape Mechanisms |
1. thorns
2. defensive chemicals |
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Prey Escape Mechanisims
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1. Camouflage - w/ organics, w/ noxious plants or animals
2. Unpalatable |
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aposematism
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warning colorations
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crypsis
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camouflage
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Batesian Mimicry
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certain palatable species mimic unpalatable models - benefit from predator learning experience
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Mullerian Mimicry
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among unpalatable species resembling one another
(aposematic coloring of mimicry complex) |
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Parasite Dispersal
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Internal: benign environments
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Challenges to Parasite Survival
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1. host organism detects & destroys
2. disperse through hostile environments (complicated life process, multiple hosts, etc) |
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Parasite: Malaria
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2 dif host adaptations: humans + mosquitoes
soil + skin |
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Parasitoids
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- generally host-specific (use only 1 species)
- live inside host --> lead to death of host Ex: Fire Ants - "decapitating flies" |
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Plants - Antiherbivore Defenses
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Biochemical means
1. low nutritional content of tissue 2. toxic cmpds 3. structural defenses: spines, seed coats, sticky gums + resins 4. Secondary compounds dev'd to attract protective species |
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Predator + Prey populations...
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CYCLE
(predator cycle lags slightly behind prey) |
