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93 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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taxonomy
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the science of classifying living things
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Proper form for Scientific Name
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italics
genus capitalized species not capitalized |
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Why are common names bad?
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vary based on culture/population
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Taxonomic Hierarchy (general)
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Domain
Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species |
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Taxonomic Hierarchy (Humans)
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Domain: Eukarya
Kingdom: Anamalia Phylum: Chordata Class: Mammalia Order: Primata Family: Hominidae Genus: Homo Species: sapiens |
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Human Domain
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Eukarya
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Human Kingdom
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Anamalia
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Human Phylum
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Chordata
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Human Class
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Mammalia
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Human Order
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Primata
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Human Family
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Hominidae
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Human Genus
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Homo
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Human Species
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sapiens
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Systematics
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reconstruction and study of evolutionary relationships
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Phylongenies
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evolutionary trees used to demonstrate the relatedness of groups of organisms
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Cladistics
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a type of phylogeny based on similarities derived from a common ancestor
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The 3 Domains
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Eukarya
Bacteria Archaea |
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The 4 Kingdoms
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Protista
Fungi Plantae Anamalia |
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The 9 Phyla of Anamalia
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Porifera
Cnidaria Playhelminthes Nematoda Annelida Arthropoda Mollusca Echinodermata Chordata |
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The 7 Classes of the subphylum Verbrata
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Agnatha
Chondrichthyes Osterchthyes Amphibia Reptilia Aves Mammalia |
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The 3 Major Characteristics of the Phylum Chordata
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notochord
dorsal, hollow nerve tube pharyngeal gill slits |
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Anthropocentric
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Classification is a human construct and is therefore biased
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Subjective
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Even scientists do not agree on clssification schemes
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Approaches to Classifying Organisms
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2 Kingdoms (plantae, anamalia)
- Linnaeus 5 Kingdoms - Whittaker 6 Kingdoms (Archaebacteria) - Woese 3 Domains - Woese |
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Order of Domains in Evolution
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Bacteria
Archaea Eukarya |
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The Domain Archaea
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Cell walls w/o peptidoglycan
Unique lipid structure Prokaryotic Most inhabit extreme conditions |
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3 Categories of Archaea
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Methanogens - obtain energy via reducing CO2 into methane (anaerobic)
Extremophiles - thermophiles (likek heat), halophiles (like salt), pH-tolerant Nonextreme - inhabit normal environments |
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The Domain Bacteria
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Most abundant organisms on Earth
Cell walls w/ peptidoglycan (antibiotics break down peptidoglycan killing bacteria) Prokaryotic |
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Functions of Bacteria
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Photosynthesis - cyanobacteria (blue-green algae)
Nitrogen Fixations - breaks N2 from atmosphere into useful organic containing N Disease - population control |
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The Domain Eukarya
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Have true nucleus and organelles
Four Kingdoms |
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Name the 4 Primary Tissues
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Epithelial
Connective Muscle Nerve |
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Epithelial Tissue is derived from:
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Ectoderm
Endoderm Mesoderm |
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Functions of Epithelial Tissue
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Lining for all body surfaces
- selective barrier |
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Stucture of Epithelial Tissue
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Cells are tightly bound together
Diffusion only to cross Blood vessels do not penetrate Very regenerative |
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Two Classes of Epithelial Tissue
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Simple - 1 layer
Stratified - 2 or more layers |
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Three shapes of Epithelial Tissue
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Squamous - flattened cube
Cuboidal - cube Columnar - pillar |
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Simple Squamous
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- Lining of lungs, capillary walls, and blood vessels
- Hight level of diffusion |
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Simple Cuboidal
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- Lining of glands and kidney, covering of ovaries
- Function = secretion & absorption |
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Simple Columnar
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- Surface lining of stomach, intestines and parts of respiratory
- Function - secretion, absorption, protection |
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Stratified Squamous
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- Outer layer of skin, lining of mouth
- Provides tough protection |
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Psuedostratified Columnar
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- Lining of respiratory tract
- Function - secrets mucus, protection |
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Connective Tissue
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Derived from mesoderm
Cells spaced widely apart therefore contains abundant extracellular material -MATRIX- |
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5 Types of Connective Tissue
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Loose Connective Tissue
Dense Connective Tissue Cartilage Bone Blood |
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Matrix (Connective Tissue)
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extracellular material which is not alive
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Loose Connective Tissue Summary
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- Beneath skin, between organs
- support, isulation, food storage and nurishment for epithelium - Fibroblasts, macrophage, fat cells |
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fibroblasts
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synthesizes protein fibers
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macrophage
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white cells, consumes stuff
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Dense Connective Tissue Summary
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- Tendons, muscles, kidney, liver, dermis of skin
- Flexible strong connections |
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Cartilage Summary
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- Spinal discs, knees (joints), ear, nose, trachael rings
- flexible support, shock absorption, reduction of friction |
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Bone Summary
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- Most of skeleton
- Protects, support for muscle attachment - Osteocytes |
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Blood
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- Circulatory system
- Communication between organs |
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Blood Summary
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Located in Circulatory system
Functions: immune system and communication Erythrocytes, Leukocytes |
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Cartilage
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Srtong, flexible connective tissue composed of shondroitin and collagen fibers
**No blood vessels in cartilage matrix so use diffusion to survive |
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Chondrocytes
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cells that live within lacunae (spaces)
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Bone
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Special form of connective tissue that contains living cells & an extracellular matrix:
Contains collagen fibers (for flexibility) and calcium phosphate (for strength) Cells: Osteoblasts secrete the matrix; can develop into osteocytes (in lacunae) Compact bone- on outside Spongy bone- on inside (contains marrow) |
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canaliculi
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Connect neighboring osteocytes by cytoplasmic extensions
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Haversian Canals
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contain nerves & blood vessels
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Muscle Tissue
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Responsible for movement
Muscle cells: contain many filaments Actin & myosin |
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Three types of muscle tissue
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Smooth muscle
Skeletal muscle Cardiac muscle |
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Two types of filament
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Actin - Thin filament
Myosin - Thick filament |
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Smooth Muscle
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Location: Walls of blood vessels, stomach, intestines
Function: involuntary contractions |
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Skeletal Muscle
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Location: Voluntary muscles
Function: voluntary movement |
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Cardiac Muscle
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Location: Walls of Heart
Function: highly interconnected cells for rapid contraction |
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2 Types of Nerve Cell Tissues
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Neuroglia: cells that support & insulate neurons
Neurons: conduct electrochemical impulses Most consist of a cell body (that contains the nuceus), dendrites (thin cytoplasmic extensions), and axon (that can be very long) |
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Three types of neurons
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Sensory
Motor Association |
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Sensory Neurons
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Location: Eyes, Ears, Skin
Function: collects info about body's external condition and sends to central nervous system |
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Motor Neurons
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Location: brain and spinal cord
Function: stimulates muscles and glands |
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Association neurons (interneurons)
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Location: brain and spinal cord
Function: integrates information |
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Types of Skeletons
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Hydrostatic: fluid-filled cavity encircled by muscle
Earthworms, jellyfish Exoskeleton: on outside of body (Arthropods) For growth, organism must molt Organisms limited in size Endoskeleton: internal (vertebrates & echinoderms) Composed of cartilage or bone |
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Muscle Contraction
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Skeletal muscle contains many
Muscle fibers (muscle cells), which are bundles of Myofibrils, which are bundles of Myofilaments (thick or thin) Muscle contracts when myofibrils contract & shorten Myofilamanets do not shorten Thin filaments (composed of actin molecules in a double-helix) slide & overlap the thick filaments (composed of myosin molecules) |
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Cross-Bridges
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Form between myosin heads of thick filaments & actin molecules of thin filamemts
Cross-bridges are formed using ATP and cause the muscle to “contract” (pulling of thin filaments) Muscle will remain contracted (fibers “locked”) unless more ATP is used to break the cross-bridge Rigor mortis – dead cells have no ATP to break cross-bridges |
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Control of Muscle Contraction
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Calcium Ions (Ca2+)
When Ca2+ concentration inside muscle cell is low, tropomyosin inhibits cross-bridge formation Muscle is relaxed When Ca2+ concentration is raised, it binds to troponin, which causes a conformational change in tropomyosin (and actin filaments) This exposes myosin-binding sites on actin, allowing cross bridges to form (muscle contracts) |
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Stimulation by neurons
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electrochemical signals cause neurons to release neurotransmitters (such as acetylcholine)
This causes sarcoplasmic reticulum in muscle cell to release Ca2+, which binds to troponin . . . |
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sarcoplasmic reticulum
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sores or releases Ca+2
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2 Types of Digestive Systems
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Gastrovascular Cavity
One-Way Tract |
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Gastrovascular Cavity
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An incomplete digestive system
Sac with only one opening for both food & wastes Inefficient because some food is lost when waste is expelled Cnidarians, planaria |
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One-Way Tract
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A complete digestive system
Has both a mouth and an anus Allows for specialization of different regions along the tract Evolution of head: cyphilization Nematodes, . . . . . |
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Digestion in mouth
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Digestion Begins in the Mouth
Teeth break food into smaller pieces Saliva moistens & lubricates food for easier swallowing Saliva also contains the enzyme amylase, which breaks down polysaccharides |
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Teeth
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Molars - grinding
Canines - tearing Incisors - cutting Teeth dictate diet (herbivores have more molars) |
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Esophagus
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Connects mouth to stomach
Upper 1/3: voluntary muscle (swallowing) Lower 2/3: involuntary muscle |
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Peristalsis
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rhythmic waves of muscular contraction that move food toward stomach
enables vertebrates to swallow upside down |
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Sphincter
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ring of muscle at bottom of esophagus to prevent backward flow of food
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Stomach
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Function: storage & some digestion
Inner surface is highly convoluted- folded up when empty, but expanded when full Surrounded by smooth muscle for churning |
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2 Types of Stomach Cells
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Parietal cells: secrete HCl
Low pH denatures proteins & kills bacteria Chief cells: secrete pepsinogen ( for digestion of proteins) **Epithelial cells protected by alkaline mucus |
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Pyloric sphincter
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between stomach & small int.
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Small Intestine
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Function: digestion & absorption
Lined with smooth muscle Highly convoluted (villi, microvilli) Increased surface area (humans 300 sq. meters) Digestive enzymes: some are membrane proteins; others enter from the pancreas Glucose & amino acids are absorbed & enter the blood (hepatic vein) Fatty acids are absorbed & enter the lymphatic system |
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Large Intestine
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Function: to concentrate waste material ABSORBS WATER
No digestion; smaller in length & surface area Many bacterial colonies: form gas by fermentation of fiber & other undigestable material Lined with smooth muscle Large intestine→rectum→anus 2 sphincters control passage of feces to anus One involuntary; one voluntary |
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Cecum
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pouch where Si and Li meet
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Ruminants
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(cows, deer) have a 4-chambered stomach & regurgitate their food
other organisms use bacteria (symbiotic relationship) |
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Four Chambered Stomachof Ruminants
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Rumen (fermentation of cellulose)
Reticulum Omasum Abomasum (= human stomach) |
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Variations in Digestive Systems
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Most animals cannot digest cellulose
Symbiotic relationship with bacteria Ruminants (cows, deer) have a 4-chambered stomach & regurgitate their food Horses, rodents, & rabbits have an enlarged cecum (between small & large int.) where bacteria digest cellulose Coprophagy: eat their own feces |
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Pancreas
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synthesizes enzymes that digest:
Proteins (trypsin, chymotrypsin) Carbohydrates (amylase) Fats (lipase) Pancreatic juice also contains Bicarbonate (neutralizes acid) Hormones to control blood glucose level(insulin) |
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Liver & Gallbladder
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Bile is produced in the liver & stored in gallbladder
Bile salts aid in digestion of fats |
