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164 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Branches of Biology
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Ecology
Physiology Microbiology Zoology Botany Genetics |
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What is science
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used to answer questions about the natural world using phenomenon found in the natural world--does not include supernatural causation.
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Reductionism
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To be able to understand something better by looking at the component parts.
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Inductive reasoning
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From specific to general
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Deductive reasoning
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From general to specific
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Hypothesis
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Educated guess, capable of being tested; the initial idea of how something works
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Theory
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A hypothesis that has been tested many times successfully. Still, a good theory can be modified or discarded if neccessary.
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Working hypothesis
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A tentative explanation as to the cause of a given phenomenon.
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Testable hypothesis
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Stated in a way that makes it easily falsifiable.
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Scientific method
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1. Make obersations
2. Develop question based on observations and other research 3. Form hypothesis 4. Make a prediction 5. Design experiments to test predictions 6. Repeat test for consistency 7. Evaluate results |
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Biology
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The scientific study of life and living systems
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Characteristics common to all living things
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1. Ordered
2. Utilize energy 3. Regulation 4. Respond to stimuli 5. Grow/develop based on information in DNA 6. Reproduce 7. Over time, populations of living organisms evolve in response to their environment. |
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Hierarchy of biological organization
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Atom
Molecule Cell Tissue Organ Organ System Organism Population Community Ecosystem Biosphere |
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Emergent properties
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The abilities and characteristics of biological organization at a particular hierarchical level is greater than the sum of the component parts
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Evolution
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A change in the heritable traits among populatins over time.
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Organization of life
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Domain
Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species |
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Biological species concept
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One or more groups of individuals that interbreed, produce fertile offspring
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Elements that mainly compose living things
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carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen
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Protons
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Have a mass of 1 unit. Have an electrical charge of +1
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Neutrons
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Have a mass of 1 units. No charge.
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Electrons
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Have mass of about 1/2000 unit. They have a -1 charge.
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Atomic number
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Number of protons
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Atomic weight
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Number of protons + number of neutrons
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Isotopes
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Atoms with the same atomic number, but different numbers of neutrons
Different isotopes of the same element all have the same properties Heavier isotopes are usually radioactive. |
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Radioavtive isotopes
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Nuclei gives off energy to gain a more stable state.
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Half life
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The amount of time it takes half of the mass of isotopes to decay into a more stable product.
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Carbon dating
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Carbon half life=5730 years
Can be used for up to around 10 half life cycles (detect age of something up to about 60,000 yrs old) |
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Electron shells
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-Innermost shell holds 2 electrons
-All other shells hold up to 8 electrons |
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Octet rule
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-atoms "desire" to have a full outer shell
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Ions
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atoms where the number of electrons is different from the number of protons
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reduction
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gaining of electrons
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oxidation
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loss of electrons
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Ionic bond
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One atom "gives" an electron to another atom
Are held together because their opposite charges attract each other |
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Covalent bonds
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When two atoms share a pair of electrons
Satisfies the "desire" to fill outer shell Most common type of bond in biological molecules. |
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Polar covalent bond
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When the electrons in a covalent bond aren't shared equally. One atom attracts electrons more strongly than the other.
-total charge is balanced, but charges withing the molecule are not polar molecules attract each other |
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Hydrogen bond
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Partial + charge on a hydrogen attracts the partial - charge on a nearby oxygen or nitrogen.
-very weak compared to a covalent bond -large numbers add up to a strong bond |
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Water
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Firns many hydrogen bonds with other moldecules and with polar substances
causes- surface tension (stick together) & capillary action (stick to other things) |
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Characteristics of water
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Hydrogen bonds form as fast as they break (liquid)
When more energy is put into water (heat) more hydrogen bonds are broken then form (evaporation) Below 0C, water molecules do not moce enough to break hydrogen bonds (ice) |
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Solution
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A homogeneous mixture of two or more types of atom or molecule
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Solute
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what is being dissolved
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Solvent
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the liquid that is doing the dissolving (e.g. water)
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hydrophilic
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"water loving"
-dissolve in water |
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hydrophobic
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"water fearing"
-don't dissolve in water |
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Acids
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Produce H+ ions when dissolved in water
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Bases
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Accept H+ ions when dissolved in water
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pH scale
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Measures acidity
-acids have lower pHs -bases have a higher pH |
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Buffers
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Pairs of weak acids and weak bases to absorb excess H+ and OH- and keep the body's pH near neutral
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Acid rain
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caused by fossil fuel burning and nitrogen containing fertilizer
-lower pH of rainwater -most rain waterr is between -8pH Acid rain <5.6pH |
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Organic molecules
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have at least 1 carbon and 1 hydrogen atom
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Carbon's Bonding Pattern
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Each atom forms 4 bonds
The 4 bonds are in the form of a tetrahedron (triangular pyramid) -Can form long chains and rings |
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Global warming
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CO2 reduces the amount of radiant heat from the earth that escapes the atmosphere
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Hydrocarbons
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-A subgroup composed mostly of carbon and hydrogen
-Huge numbers occur in nature due to special properties of carbon -Linear chains and rings |
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Function group
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A special cluster of atoms that performs a useful function
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Polymers
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Consist of repetitice units (monomers) that are linked together
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5 categories of reactions
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Functional group transfer
Electron transfer Rearrangement Dehydration Hydrolysis |
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Functional group transfer
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Change in functional grou
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Electron transfer
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Change in the number of electrons
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Rearrangement
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Changing of internal bond structure
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Dehydration
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Joining of smaller molecules to larger
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Hydrolysis
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Splitting of larger molecules to smaller
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Dehydration Reactions
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Link monomers together and produce water
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Hydrolysis
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The reverse of dehydration; uses water to break polymers into monomers
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4 basic types of organic molecule
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Carbohydrates
Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acids |
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Carbohydrates
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Sugars and Starches
Used for energy production and storage and for structure |
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Glucose
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C6H12O6
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Monosaccharides
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Have 3-7 carbon atoms; occur as rings or chains
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Disaccharides
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2 monosaccharides bonded together
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Polysaccharides
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4 or more monosaccharides linked otgether
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Lipids
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Most are hydrophobic
-Fats -Phospholipeds (cell membranes) -Waxes (waterproofing) -Sterols (hormones) |
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Saturated fats
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Hydrocarbon chains with all single bonds
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Unsaturated
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Fats with double bonds (most vegetable fats are unsaturated)
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Hydrogenated oils
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Unsatturated fatty acids that have fewer double bonds; are solid rather than liquid at room temp.
-produces trans fatty acids which increase risk for heart disease |
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Phospholipids
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The main component of cell membranesHave a glycerol with 2 fatty acids attached, plus a phosphate-containing "head" group instead of a third fatty acid
-cell membranes have 2 layers, the head troups facing out and the fatty acids forming the interior of the membrane. |
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Steroids
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Hydrocarbons with the carbon atoms arranged in a set of 4 linked rings
Made from cholesterol |
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Waxes
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Waterproof coating on plants and animals
Composed of fatty acids attached to long chain alcohols |
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Proteins
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Consist of long chains (polymers) of amino acids
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Major roles of proteins
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Enzymes
Structure Transport Storage |
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4 components of amino acids
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-an amino group (NH3+)
-a carboxyl group (COO-) -a hydrogen atom (H) -a radical (R group) |
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Peptide bonds
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covalent bonds that link amino acids
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Primary protein structure
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The linear sequence of amino acids
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Secondary protein structure
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The coiling pattern of a strand of amino acids
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Tertiary protein structure
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The coiling of a strand of amino acids about itself
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Quaternary protein structure
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Positioning of subunits relative to one another (only occurs in comples proteins)
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Enviromental factors that influence protein structure
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Temperature
pH Presence of other molecules |
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Denature
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When proteins loose their functional shape
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Nucleic Acids
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Have on sugar, one phosphate group, and one nitrogen-containing base
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Ribose
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Sugar found in RNA
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Deoxyribose
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Sugar found in DNA
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Nucleotides
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Can be chained together to form nucleic acids
Consist of 3 subunis 1. Sugar group 2. Phosphate group 3. Nitrogeneous base |
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DNA
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Caries the genetic coding for all forms of life
Made of of 4 nucleotides Purines: Gaunine & Adenine Pyrimidines: Thymine & Cytosine |
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RNA
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Involved in transferring the information in DNA to areas for protein synthesis--namely ribosomes
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4 nucleotides in RNA
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Purines: Guanine & Adenine
Pyrimidines: Uracil & Cytosine |
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ATP
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Acts as the main form of energy currency in cellular reactions
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Cells
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Smallest unit of life that can surcice on its own
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Cell theory
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1. All organisms are composed of one or more cells.
2. The cell is the basic living unit 3. All cells arise from preexisting cells. |
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All cell have...
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1. Plasma membrane
2. Region of cytoplasm (cytosol) 3. Region of DNA 4. Robosomes |
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Prokaryotes
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-"before nucleus"
-archae and bacteria -no nucleus -lack membrane bound internal structure -cell wall present -capsule -nucleoid region-simple DNA in ring |
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Eukaryotes
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-"true nucleus"
-all other organisms (fungae, animals, plants, protists) -contains nucleus and other membrane bound internal structures |
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Plasma membranes
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regulate movement in and out of cells
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Cell membranes
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Proteins, cholesterol and other compounds embedded withing the bilayer
Fluidlike Large moledules to not pass freely through membranes |
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Cytoplasm
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Region between nucleus and plasma membrane. Area where organelles are located. Suspended in cytosol.
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Parts of Nucleus
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Nuclear envelope, chromatin, chromosome, nucleolus
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Nuclear envelope
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membrane with TWo lipid bilayers and mores that surrounds the nucleus
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Chromatin
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Total collection of DNA and proteins in nucleus
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Chromosome
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Individual DNA strand and associated proteins
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Nucleolus
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Area of DNA where components of ribosomes are synthesized (proteins and RNA)
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Ribosomes
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Globular-shaped structures composed of two subunits; are site of protein synthesis
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Endoplasmic reticulum
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Extensively folded membranesl initially modifies proteins, transports and stores proteins
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Rough Endoplasmic tericulum
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Production and modification of proteins, production of membranes
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Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
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Synthesis of lipids, detoxification, metabolism of carbohydrates, involved in Ca+ flow during muscle contraction
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Golgi aparatus
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Puts final touches on lipids and proteins
Break off in vesicles to be transported to other locations in the cell |
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Transport vesicles
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Small spheres formed by membrane for movement of cellular products
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Peroxisomes
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Break down fatty acids, amino acids
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Lysosomes
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Contain digestive enzymes- engulf food, invaders (viruses) and 'brokendown' organelles
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Vacuole
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A membrane organelle involved in endocytosis and exocytosis as well as storate
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Lysosomes
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often bud from Golgi membranes; contain enzymes that break down polysaccharides, proteins, nucleic acids, some lipids
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Central vacuoles
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Only in plants
-large area used for storage of water, metabolic byproducts, or toxins. Also involved in providing some rigidity through turgot pressure |
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Cytoskeleton
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Network of microfilaments and microtubules that give shate to cell and support organelles
Contain microfilaments, intermediate filaments and mictrotubules |
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Mitochondria
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Double-membraned, football-shaped
Involved in cellular respiration (ATP production) Has its own DNA and ribosomes |
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Chloroplasts
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Specialized plastid, greenish organelles where photosynthesis takes place
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Characteristics of plants cells not in animal cells
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Cell wall
Chloroplast and some other plastids Central vacuole |
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Characteristics of animal cells not found in plant cells
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Lysosomes
Centrioles Flagella |
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Plasmodesmata
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Channels in cell wall allowing mvt of molecules between cells
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Endosymbiotic theory
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Inner membrane contains proteins similar to prokaryotes
Circular DNA similar to bacteria New mitochondria and plastids come about similar to binary fission Contain robosomes similar to bacteria |
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Recognition proteins
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'fingerprint' of the cell
Can help cells to congregate to form organs. Immune response- know 'self' from 'non-self' |
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Adhesion protein
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Helps cells stick together
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Receptor proteins
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Involved in the signaling of a cell to change activity
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Transport proteins
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Transport substances across the membrane
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Rules for movement across membranes
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1. Small, uncharged molecules move readily through membranes
2. Large, uncharged molecules must be transported 3. Small, charged molecules must be transported. 4. Water-while polar, can slip throuh in small ammounts but also uses transport |
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Passive transport
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Does not require and expenditure of energy (ATP); sometimes involves a protein
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Active transport
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Requires energy (ATP); always requires a protein
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Diffusion
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Net movement from an area of higher concentration to one of lower concentration
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Factors affecting diffusion rate
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Temperature: increases as temperature increases
Size of molecules: Decreases as size increases Concentration gradient- stronger gradient increases rate electric gradient- difference in charge |
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Osmosis
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The diffusion of water through a semipermiable membrane such as a cell membrane
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Rule for osmosis
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If concentration inside=concentration outside, there is no net movement.
Greater concentration in cell-solution moves in (solution outside is hypotonic to cell) Great concentration outside cell-solution moves our (solution outside is hypertonic) |
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Passive transport/facilitated diffusion
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Mvt of substances from a high to lower concentration by transport proteins (requires a protein(permease) but not ATP)
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2 main types of proteins used in facilitated diffusion
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Channel protein- selectively allows certain molecules to pass through the membrane
Carrier proteins- Changes shape to allow passage |
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Active transport
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Movement from regions of lower to higher concentrations
Requires ATP and special transport molecules i.e. Na K pump |
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Endocytosis
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movement of large particles or molecules in and out of cell
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Exocytosis
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particles moce into cell by formation of pockets that pinch off to form vacuoles (reverse of endocytosis)
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1st law of thermodynamics
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Energy is never created or destroyed...
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2nd law of thermodynamics
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In a closed system, all things tend to move toward a state of disorder.
Nothing is 100% efficient |
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Potential energy
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Stored energy
The Capacity to do work |
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Kinetic energy
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Energy of motion, actually doing work.
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Metabolism
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The sum of total chemical reaction occuring in an organism
Chemical reaction are organized in complex metabolic pathways |
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Anabolic pathway
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Building larger molecules out of smaller components
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Catabolic pathway
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Breaking larger molecules into smaller ones
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Endergonic reaction
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Requires energy
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Exergonic reaction
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Releases energy
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Chemical work
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synthesis of new molecule or more complex molecule
storage |
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Mechanical work
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used for physical movement-muscle contraction-energy used to change shape of proteins in molecules
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Transport work
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Movement accross membrane
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Types of work in cells
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Chemical, mechanical & transport
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Activation energy
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energy required to initiate a reaction
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Enzymes
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reduce activation energy
proteins with active site where compounds bind before reacting -highly specific to reactions they control -not irreversibely changed -usually proteins |
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How enzymes reduce activation energy
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-Helps reactants get together
-Orients them in proper position -Provides favorible environment -Pushes/holds them together |
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Cofactors
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small molecules required for an enzyme to properly function
-modify shape of active site or enhance electron transfers |
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Factors affecting enzyme activity
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Temperature-denatures proteins
pH-alters enzyme shape Inhibitors |
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Competative inhibitor
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Mimic molecule that binds with enzyme
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Noncompetative inhibitor
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Change shape of enzyme
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Feedback inhibition
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Product of metabolic pathyway inhibits production of more product
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Allosteric site
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reversible site on enzyme where inhibitors bind
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Allosteric activation
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presence of inhibitor needed to maintain metabolic pathway
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Respiration
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How cells convert potential energy in a form more useful to metabolic processes
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