Bio-1 Exam 2

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Acetyl CoA

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is an important molecule in metabolism, used in many biochemical reactions. Its main function is to convey the carbon atoms within the acetyl group to the citric acid cycle (Krebs cycle) to be oxidized for energy production.

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Aerobic

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relating to, involving, or requiring free oxygen.

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Anaerobic

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relating to, involving, or requiring an absence of free oxygen.

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ATP

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is the energy currency of life. ATP is a high-energy molecule found in every cell. Its job is to store and supply the cell with needed energy.

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Cellular Respiration

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is a set of metabolic reactions and processes that take place in the cells of organisms to convert biochemical energy from nutrients into adenosine triphosphate (ATP), and then release waste products.

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Electron Transfer Chain

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is a series of compounds that transfer electrons from electron donors to electron acceptors via redox (both reduction and oxidation occurring simultaneously) reactions, and couples this electron transfer with the transfer of protons (H+ ions) across a membrane.

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Fermentation

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the chemical breakdown of a substance by bacteria, yeasts, or other microorganisms, typically involving effervescence and the giving off of heat.

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Glycolysis

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the breakdown of glucose by enzymes, releasing energy and pyruvic acid.

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Krebs Cycle

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the sequence of reactions by which most living cells generate energy during the process of aerobic respiration. It takes place in the mitochondria, consuming oxygen, producing carbon dioxide and water as waste products, and converting ADP to energy-rich ATP.

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Myoglobin

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a red protein containing heme that carries and stores oxygen in muscle cells. It is structurally similar to a subunit of hemoglobin.

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Oxidation

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the process or result of oxidizing or being oxidized.

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Phosphorylation

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is the addition of a phosphate group (PO43−) to a molecule. Phosphorylation and its counterpart, dephosphorylation, turn many protein enzymes on and off, thereby altering their function and activity. Protein phosphorylation is one type of post-translational modification.

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Pyruvate

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is the end product of glycolysis, which is converted into acetyl coA that enters the Krebs cycle when there is sufficient oxygen available. When the oxygen is insufficient, pyruvate is broken down anaerobically, creating lactate in animals (including humans) and ethanol in plants.

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Reduction

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gaining an electron

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Redox Reduction

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reduction reaction or redox reaction- is a type of chemical reaction that involves a transfer of electrons between two species. An oxidation-reduction reaction is any chemical reaction in which the oxidation number of a molecule, atom, or ion changes by gaining or losing an electron

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Substrate Level Phosphorylation

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is a type of metabolic reaction that results in the formation of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) or guanosine triphosphate (GTP) by the direct transfer and donation of a phosphoryl (PO3) group to ADP or guanosine diphosphate (GDP) from a phosphorylated reactive intermediate. Note that the phosphate group does not have to come directly from the substrate.

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Autosome

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any chromosome that is not a sex chromosome.

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Centromere

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the point on a chromosome by which it is attached to a spindle fiber during cell division.

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Chromosome

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a threadlike structure of nucleic acids and protein found in the nucleus of most living cells, carrying genetic information in the form of genes.

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Diploid

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(of a cell or nucleus) containing two complete sets of chromosomes, one from each parent.

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DNA Polymerase

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is a type of enzyme that is responsible for forming new copies of DNA, in the form of nucleic acid molecules. Nucleic acids are polymers, which are large molecules made up of smaller, repeating units that are chemically connected to one another.

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Double Helix

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a pair of parallel helices intertwined about a common axis, especially that in the structure of the DNA molecule.

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Gene

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a distinct sequence of nucleotides forming part of a chromosome, the order of which determines the order of monomers in a polypeptide or nucleic acid molecule which a cell (or virus) may synthesize.

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Haploid

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having a single set of unpaired chromosomes.

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Histones

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any of a group of basic proteins found in chromatin.

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Karyotype

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the number and visual appearance of the chromosomes in the cell nuclei of an organism or species.

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Mutagen

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an agent, such as radiation or a chemical substance, that causes genetic mutation.

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Mutation

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the changing of the structure of a gene, resulting in a variant form that may be transmitted to subsequent generations, caused by the alteration of single base units in DNA, or the deletion, insertion, or rearrangement of larger sections of genes or chromosomes.

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Nucleic Acid

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a complex organic substance present in living cells, especially DNA or RNA, whose molecules consist of many nucleotides linked in a long chain.

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Nucleotide

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a compound consisting of a nucleoside linked to a phosphate group. Nucleotides form the basic structural unit of nucleic acids such as DNA.

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Phosphate

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a salt or ester of phosphoric acid, containing PO43− or a related anion or a group such as —OPO(OH)2

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Primer

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A primer is a short strand of RNA or DNA (generally about 10 base pairs) that serves as a starting point for DNA synthesis. It is required for DNA replication because the enzymes that catalyze this process, DNA polymerases, can only add new nucleotides to an existing strand of DNA.

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Sex Chromosome

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a chromosome involved with determining the sex of an organism, typically one of two kinds.

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Sister Chromatid

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A sister chromatid refers to either of the two identical copies (chromatids) formed by the replication of a single chromosome, with both copies joined together by a common centromere. In other words, a sister chromatid may also be said as 'one-half' of the duplicated chromosome.

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Anticodon

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in a tRNA, set of 3 nucleotides that base-pairs with an mRNA codon.

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Base Insertion

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mutation in which one or more nucleotides become inserted into DNA.

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Base Deletion

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mutation in which one or more nucleotides are lost.

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Base Substitution

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type of mutation in which a single base pair changes. Ex in DNA-G/C T/A and vise versa in mRNA-G/C A/U vise versa and T/A

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Codon

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in an mRNA a nucleotide base triplet that codes for an amino acid or stop signal during translation.

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Gene

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a part of a chromosome that encodes an RNA or protein products in its DNA sequence.

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Gene Expression

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process by which the information in a gene guides assembly of an RNA or protein product.

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Genetic Code

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complete set of sixty-four mRNA codons.

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mRNA

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RNA that has a protein-building messages.

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Promoter

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in DNA, a sequence to which RNA polymerase binds

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RNA Polymerase

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enzyme that carries out transcription.

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tRNA

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RNA that delivers amino acids to a ribosome during translation.

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Transcription

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process by which enzymes assemble an RNA using the nucleotides sequence of a gene as a template.

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Translation

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process by which a polypeptide chain is assembled from amino acids in the order specified by an mRNA.

Front 49

Peptide Bond

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a bond between the amine group of one amino acid and the carboxyl group of another joins amino acids in protein.

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Barr Body

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inactivated x chromosome in a cell of a female mammal, the other x chromosome is activated.

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Clone

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an individual created by asexual reproduction. (generally identical to a single parent.)

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Gene Expression

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process by which the info in a gene guides assembly of an RNA or protein product.

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Gene Regulation

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In Prokaryotic cells- e coli makes enzymes when food needs to be digested.

In Eukaryotic cells- differentiation- process by which a cell gets its job and occurs when some genes are turned off and others on.

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Homeotic Gene

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type of master genes that expression controls formation of specific body parts during development.

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Master Gene

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gene encoding a product that affects the expression of many other genes.

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Operator

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in prokaryotes a binding site in DNA for a repressor.

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Operon

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group of genes together with a promoter-operator DNA sequence that controls their transcription.

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Promoter

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where the RNA polymerase attaches to begin transcription.

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SRY Gene

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is a master gene that controls emergence of male secondary sexual traits. Sex determining Region of the Y-chromosome.

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tRNA

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RNA that delivers amino acids to a ribosome during translation.

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Regeneration

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renewal or restoration of a body, bodily part, or biological system after injury or as a normal process.

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Repressor

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transcription factor that produces genetically identical individuals.

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Reproductive cloning

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The cloning of organisms with the goal of planting the blastula produced by the technique into the uterus of an adult female and thus creating a new organism. ( Compare therapeutic cloning; see Dolly.)

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Somatic Cell

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reproductive cloning method in which DNA of an adult donors body cell is transferred into an unfertilized egg

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Therapeutic Cloning

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the use of SCNT to produce human embryos for research purposes.Chapter 13

Front 66

Gene Packing

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genes become inaccessible for protein synthesis.