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130 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
what is an inorganic compound?
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-a compound that does not contain carbon.
ex: salts, water, inorganic acids and inorganic bases |
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what is a salt?
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-all ionic compounds are salts.
ex: NaCl, CaCl2 -they are all water soluble |
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what is an inorganic acid?
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-an ionic substance that releases H+ ions when it dissolves in water
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what is an inorganic base?
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-an ionic substance that can bind H+ ions
-many bases will dissociate in water and release OH- (hydroxyl) ions |
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what are some of the properties of water which make it so common in anatomy and physiology?
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-it is essential to life
-it helps maintain constant cell tempertaure because it takes up LOTS of heat before boiling -it is the UNIVERSAL SOLVENT; more things dissolve in water than anything else |
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what is matter?
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anything that takes up space and has mass
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what is an element?
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a unique chemical substance that is composed of atoms
-no 2 elements are similar |
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what is an atom?
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the smallest pure unit of a substance
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what are the 3 fundamental particles in atomic structure?
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protons - positive charge
neutrons - no charge electrons - negative charge |
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what is the atomic number?
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the number of protons the atom has
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what is the atomic mass?
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how much the atom weighs. the number of protons + the number of neutrons.
-usually double the atomic number |
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what are orbits?
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-the cloud around the nucleus where the electrons travel.
-only a certain amount of electrons fit in each orbit |
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what is an isotope?
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an atom with a different number of neutrons in the nucleus.
-isotopes are radioactive when theres many many extra neutrons, causing them to fall off the nucleus as. the neutrons falling off the nucleus is known as radiation |
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what is a compound?
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a chemical substance formed by 2 or more atoms.
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what is a molecule?
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the smallest particle of a compound that has all of the properties of that compound.
atom is to element as molecule is to compound |
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what is an ion?
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an atom that has gained or lost electrons, thereby giving it polarity
cation - positively charged, an atom that lost electrons anion - negatively charged, an atom that gained electrons |
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what is an ionic bond?
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a bond formed between two particles in which an electrons jump from one particle to another in order to make complete valence shells. the particles are then considered charged ions.
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ionic compounds?
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-formed by ionic bonding
-mostly salts, acids and bases -since there is no physical bonding, ionic compounds are very weak and dissociate in water very easily. |
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what is covalent bond?
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a bond in which 2 atoms share 1, 2, or 3 electrons, thus completing both of their valence shells
-results is polar and nonpolar covalent compounds |
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what is non polar covalent bonding?
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when all the electrons of both atoms are accounted for.
ex. 2 H atoms, each has 1 electron in its valence shell, each needs 1 electron to fill their valence shell, they each share their electron, all are electrons are accounted for. non polar |
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what is a polar covalent bond?
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when there are electrons in 1 atom's valence shell that are not being shared.
ex. H2O. O has 6 e's in its valence, H each has 1. O shares 1 e with each of H atoms, completing their valence shells, but there are 4 more electrons left over only being used by O. this creates a negative charge on one end of the Oxygen |
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what is a hydrogen bond?
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a bond between 2 oppositely polarized particles, OR between oppositely polarized ends of teh same molecule (which causes it to fold in on itself)
-bond of attraction, the weakest of all chemical bonds. |
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what is dehydration synthesis?
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a chemical reaction where 2 molecules unite by losing a molecule of water
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what is hydrolysis?
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a chemical reaction where a molecule is broken and water is released
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what is oxidation?
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a chemical reactions in which a molecule loses electrons
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what is reduction?
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a chemical reaction in which a molecule gains electrons
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what does anabolic mean?
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refers to chemical reactions that make large molecules out of smaller particles
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what does catabolic mean?
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refers to chemical reactions that break down large molecules into smaller particles
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what does exothermic mean?
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a chemical reaction which gives off energy by breaking bonds
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what does endothermic mean?
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a chemical reaction in which energy must be supplied to break or form bonds
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describe an acid and base exchange reation
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acids and bases will combine to form a salt and water
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what is pH?
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-pH is a scale that measures the acidity or alkalinity or a substance.
-the scale is logorithmic; each unit is 10x greather than the previous unit |
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what is the range of the pH scale?
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-the scale goes from 0 - 14, with 0 being the most acidic, 14 being the most alkaline and 7 being neutral.
-acidity refers to the number of H+ ions, and alkalinity refers to the number OH-(hydroxyl) ions. -neutral means that there is an equal number of H+ and OH- ions |
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what is a buffer?
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substance used to prevent pH changes in a solution because it binds up H+ ions
-acts like a magnet for H+ ions |
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what is an organic compound?
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-any molecule that contains CARBON
-C can share up to 3 electrons with other C atoms, but then must bond with something else |
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what is an alcohol?
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an organic compound with an OH- ion present
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waht is an aldehyde?
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an organic compound that must have carbon double bonded to oxygen, and single bonded to hydrogen
H-C=O |
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what is an organic acid?
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must have carbon double bonded to oxygen and single bonded to OH
OH-C=O |
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what is a ketone?
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must have carbon double bonded to oxygen
C=O |
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what is an amine?
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must have Nitrogen present
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what is an amino acid?
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an organic compound that has an acid (OH-C=O) at one end and an amine at the other
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what is a lipid?
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-fats
-macromolecules composed of mostly carbon and hydrogen and little oxygen -triglyceride, phospholipids, and sterols C27 H63 O11 |
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what is a triglyceride?
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-the simplest of all lipids.
-composed of glycerol(an alcohol) and 3 fatty acids attached to the OH- ions |
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what is a fatty acid?
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-a long chain of carbon atoms (18 - 22 atoms) with an organic acid at one end
-may be saturated or unsaturated |
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what is a saturated fatty acid?
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the long chain of carbon atoms holds the maximum amount of hydrogen atoms possible. no double bonds between carbon atoms (if there is a double bond between 2 carbon atoms, that means there is less hydrogen atoms attached)
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what is an unsaturated fatty acid?
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a fatty acid that is holding less than the maximum amount of hydrogen atoms
-due to a double bond between carbon atoms -may be monounsaturate or polyunsaturated |
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what is the difference between monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids?
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monounsaturated only has 1 double bond between carbon atoms
polyunsaturated has several double bonds between carbon atoms |
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what is a phospholipid?
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-composed of glycerol with 2 fatty acids attached to it.
-the 3rd fatty acid is replaced with an amine (N) linked to a phosphate (PO4--) -the 2 fatty acids form one end that is hydrophobic, and the phosphate makes the ohter end hydrophillic -the main component of cell membranes |
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what is a sterol?
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-a waxy, cyclic lipid
-all different sterols are derived from cholesterol -shown drawn with the ring formation |
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what is a carbohydrate?
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-sugars, starches, and fibers
-composed of carbon and water molecules, in a 1:1 ratio. -for every carbon there is 1 oxygen and 2 hydrogens C5 H10 O5 |
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what is a pentose?
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-a sugar (carbohydrate) with 5 carbon atoms.
-the 2 most important pentoses are ribose and deoxyribose |
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what is a hexose?
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-a sugar (carbohydrate) with 6 carbon atoms
C6 H12 O6 |
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what are the 3 biologically important isomers of the standard hexose formula?
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-glucose
-fructose -galactose |
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waht is an isomer?
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molecules with the same chemical formula but a different arrangement of atoms
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what is a monosaccharide?
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-single sugars. may have 3,4, 5 carbon atoms (ribose),6 carbon atoms (glucose) or 7
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waht is a disaccharide?
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-2 hexoses united through dehydration synthesis
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what are the 3 biologically important disaccharides?
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-maltose
-sucrose -lactose |
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how do you make maltose?
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combine 2 glucose molecules
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how do you make sucrose?
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combine 1 glucose molecule and 1 fructose molecule
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how do you make lactose?
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combine 1 glucose molecule and 1 galactose molecule
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what is a polysaccharide?
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macromolecules of 500+ monosaccharides
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what are 3 biologically important polysaccharides?
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-starch
-glycogen -cellulose -all are made entirely of glucose molecules arranged in different ways |
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what is starch?
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-polysaccharide
-synthesized by plants as a method of storing excess glucose -long chains of glucose with some branching |
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what is glycogen?
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-animal starch
-synthesized by the liver and muscles of animals as a way to store excess glucose -many glucose molecules linked in a highly branching manner |
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what is cellulose?
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-polysaccharide that forms the cell walls of plants
-long chains of glucose but with different chemical bonds than starch |
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what is a protein?
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-macromolecules of MANY amino acids
-each protein has a unique shape that determines its specific function in the body -comprise the building blocks of bodily functions |
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what are the 4 levels of protein structure?
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-primary
-secondary -tertiary -quaternary |
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describe primary structure
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-the number (amount) and sequence of amino acids
-there are 20 amino acids coded for by teh body |
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describe secondary structure
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-the pattern of folding caused by intramolecular h-bonding
-results in the alpha helix shape or the beta pleated sheet -determined by sequence of amino acids -not water soluble becuase the hydrophobic regions of the molecule are in the inside |
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describe tertiary structure
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-the pattern of folding caused by bydrophobic interactions and disulfide bond formation
-sulfur atoms found in certain amino acids are attracted to one another causing the molecule to fold in on itself even more, creating a globular molecule. -EXTREMELY WATER SOLUBLE, because the hydrophillic portions are now on the outside |
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describe quaternary structure
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-2 or more protein joining together to form one molecule
-has at least secondary structure, may or may not have tertiary structure |
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what are structural proteins?
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-proteins that do not have tertiary structure
-the strand like secondary structure causes proteins to form strong rope like structures with other secondary structured proteins (quaternary structure) strong structure + not water soluble = building blocks of body -also called fibrous proteins |
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what are functional proteins?
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-proteins taht are involved in all physiological reactions.
-they have a function in body processes: enzymes, hormones, etc -have at least tertiary structure -also called globular proteins |
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what is denaturing a protein?
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-any process which alters the shape of the protein
-easily done since most folding occurs due to h-bonds -heat -altering pH -heavy metals -radiation -alcohol |
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what is a hemoglobin?
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2 alpha helix shaped polypeptide chains and 2 beta pleated polypeptide chains combined
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what is an antibody?
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2 heavy polypeptide chains and 2 light polypeptide chains combined
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what is a polypeptide?
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a long chain of amino acids
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what are the 2 types of nucleic acids?
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DNA - deoxyribonucleic acid; contains hereditary info
RNA - ribonucleic acid; interprets genetic info from DNA -each contain pentoses; the DNA pentose has 1 less oxygen atom than the RNA pentose |
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what are the 2 types of nitrogen bases?
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Purines - form 2 double bonds
Pyrimidines - form 3 double bonds |
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what are the 2 types of purines?
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adenine
guanine |
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what are the 3 types of pyrimidines?
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cytosine
thymine (only in DNA) uracil (only in RNA) |
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what are the 4 levels of protein structure?
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-primary
-secondary -tertiary -quaternary |
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describe primary structure
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-the number (amount) and sequence of amino acids
-there are 20 amino acids coded for by teh body |
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describe secondary structure
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-the pattern of folding caused by intramolecular h-bonding
-results in the alpha helix shape or the beta pleated sheet -determined by sequence of amino acids -not water soluble becuase the hydrophobic regions of the molecule are in the inside |
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describe tertiary structure
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-the pattern of folding caused by bydrophobic interactions and disulfide bond formation
-sulfur atoms found in certain amino acids are attracted to one another causing the molecule to fold in on itself even more, creating a globular molecule. -EXTREMELY WATER SOLUBLE, because the hydrophillic portions are now on the outside |
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describe quaternary structure
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-2 or more protein joining together to form one molecule
-has at least secondary structure, may or may not have tertiary structure |
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what are structural proteins?
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-proteins that do not have tertiary structure
-the strand like secondary structure causes proteins to form strong rope like structures with other secondary structured proteins (quaternary structure) strong structure + not water soluble = building blocks of body -also called fibrous proteins |
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what are functional proteins?
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-proteins taht are involved in all physiological reactions.
-they have a function in body processes: enzymes, hormones, etc -have at least tertiary structure -also called globular proteins |
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what is denaturing a protein?
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-any process which alters the shape of the protein
-easily done since most folding occurs due to h-bonds -heat -altering pH -heavy metals -radiation -alcohol |
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what is a hemoglobin?
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2 alpha helix shaped polypeptide chains and 2 beta pleated polypeptide chains combined
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what is an antibody?
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2 heavy polypeptide chains and 2 light polypeptide chains combined
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what is a polypeptide?
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a long chain of amino acids
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what are the 2 types of nucleic acids?
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DNA - deoxyribonucleic acid; contains hereditary info
RNA - ribonucleic acid; interprets genetic info from DNA -each contain pentoses; the DNA pentose has 1 less oxygen atom than the RNA pentose |
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what are the 2 types of nitrogen bases?
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Purines - form 2 double bonds
Pyrimidines - form 3 double bonds |
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what are the 2 types of purines?
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adenine
guanine |
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what are the 3 types of pyrimidines?
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cytosine
thymine (only in DNA) uracil (only in RNA) |
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what are the 3 types of RNA?
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mRNA
rRNA tRNA -all 3 types are made in the nucleus from the DNA; -smaller than DNA making it possible for them to leave the nucleus to do their job in the cytoplasm |
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what is mRNA?
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-messenger RNA
-it is a transcript copy of the gene that will leave the nucleus and be read and interpreted to syntehsize the specific protein |
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what is rRNA?
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-ribosomal RNA
-in conjunction with other proteins, forms ribosomes |
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what is tRNA?
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-transfer RNA
-each type binds one of the 20 amino acids and transports it to the ribosome, where the ribosome makes the actual protein |
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what is a nucleotide?
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-make the DNA/RNA chains
-composed of a pentose (DNA-deoxyribose, RNA-ribose), phosphate and a nitrogen base |
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how are the nucleotides connected to form DNA?
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-dependent on N-Base
-if the N-Base is a purine, it can only bond to a pyrimidine -nucleotides bond to form pairs, 30,000 nucleotide pairs present in DNA |
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describe DNA
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-double stranded molecule with 2 strands held together by h-bonds forming a double helix
-hereditary info found in triplet sequence of n-base pairs |
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describe RNA
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-single stranded molecule
-much smaller than DNA -folds and base pairs to itself |
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describe N-Base pairing
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ALWAYS a purine to a pyrimidine.
ALWAYS adenine - thymine (DNA) adenine - uracil (RNA) guanine - cytosine (DNA/RNA) -the 2 nucleotide strands are connected to each other inversely |
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what is ATP?
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-adenosine triphosphate (cell energy)
-the only usable form of energy in a cell -composed of adenosine (adenine, ribose, phosphate) and 2 more phosphates -unique high energy bond between 2 phosphates, ~ |
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what is the active site?
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-the place where the chemical reaction takes place
-determined by the shape of the molecule; change the shape and you change the active site |
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what is an endergonic chemical reaction?
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a reactino in which energy is needed to form a bond
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what is an exergonic chemical reaction?
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a reaction in which energy is released from broken bonds
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what is kinetic energy?
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-the energy stored in all atoms, ions, molecules, etc..
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what is brownian motion?
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the constant movement by particles as a result of brownian motion.
-causes particles to constantly collide with one another |
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what is the rate of reaction?
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the rate at which old bonds are broken and new bonds are formed
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what is the energy of activation?
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the amount of energy needed for a chemical reaction to take place
-some are so high or low they would never happen without outside help |
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what are teh forms of outside help?
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stirring- moves molecules faster = more frequent & powerful collisions
heat - causes molecules to move faster catalyst - substance which provides a surface for reactants to meet; i.e. the singles bar enzymes - biological catalysts |
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what is an enzyme?
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-a substance that accelerates reaction rates and decreases the energy of activation.
-composed of proteins made by the cell; most have a coenzyme and mineral present as well -very specific -very small amounts beacuase each can be used over and over again |
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what is the enzyme structure?
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-apoenzyme
-coenzyme -metal ion |
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what is an apoenzyme?
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-the protein
-it provides the enzymes specificity, due to the unique surface of the protein |
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what is a co enzyme?
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-a vitamin
-transports the chemical group moved from one molecule to another |
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what is a metal ion?
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-the mineral in an enzyme
-acts as a bridge between the enzyme and the substrate |
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what is a substrate?
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the substance being broken down by an enzyme
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what is homeostasis?
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the body's ability to maintain a relatively stable internal conditions despite exisiting in a constantly changing outer environment
-maintained by nervous and endocrine systems |
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what is dynamic equilibrium?
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-the fluctuation around a mean with narrow limits as opposed to a single unchanging being
-used to maintain homeostasis |
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what are the necessary pieces in maintaining homeostasis?
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-variable
-receptor -control center -effector |
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what is a receptor?
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-the part of the homeostatic system that responds to stimuli in the environment and sends message to the control center
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what is the control center?
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-the part of the homeostatic system that receives and interprets messages
-receives info from receptor via AFFERENT pathways, evaluates, and sends out response via EFFERENT pathways to the effector |
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what is the effector?
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-the part of the homeostatic system that feeds back and responds to stimuli
-receives messages from the control center |
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what are cybernetics?
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refers to the study of control systems and how they work to maintain balance
-coined by norbert weiner |
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what are homeostatic control mechanisms?
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-the way of responding to stimuli through positive and negative feedback
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what is negative feedback?
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output of system shuts off original stimulus, hence moving it backwards.
ex.body is hot - sweat to push DOWN body temp |
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what is positive feedback?
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output of system stimulates original movement of stimulus, pushing it further forward
-typically seen in diseased states ex. body temp pushed UP to fight infection |