Behavioural Ecology

Front 1

What are some foraging decisions that animals have to choose between?

Back 1

Animals have to choose between foraging options such as large but uncommon vs small but abundant; soft vs hard; plant vs animal; traveling farther for good food vs eating closer and taking less good food

Front 2

What are the three basic rules in the Optimal Foraging Theory (OFT)?

Back 2

1. Animals will go after food/prey with the greatest net energy gain.

2. Animals will be more picky with their food/prey when there are lots of it

3. Animals will only eat low quality food/prey when good choices are scarce

Front 3

What is the best way to determine which beetle the Pied-Wigtail should hunt using the following graphs: the body length of the beetles, the handling time, and the calories gained.

Back 3

The best way to figure out which beetles the bird should go after is to overlap the graphs and determine which sized beetle will be the most efficient.

Front 4

Food differs in what quality, and give examples of what they are.

Back 4

All foods vary in their intrinsic (natural) qualities (e.g. amino acids, fatty acids, salts, vitamins, trace elements, etc)

Front 5

What do terrestrial plants tend to deficient in and how do farmers supplement it to their animals?

Back 5

Terrestrial plants tend to be deficient in sodium, which farmers make up for by giving their animals salt blocks to lick on.

Front 6

What is the difference in intrinsic values between aquatic and terrestrial plants?

Back 6

Aquatic plants tend to have low calories, high sodium levels, and high moisture; terrestrial plants, in contrast, have high calories, low sodium levels, and low moisture.

Front 7

What are the two basic rules for optimizing foraging time among patches?

Back 7

1. Animals will concentrate on patches with high productivity as opposed to those with low productivity.

2. Animals will stay with a patch until the profitability level equals the average for all foraging patches put together.

Front 8

Define home range.

Back 8

A home range is the area over which an animal travels in search of resources, mates, and food, that is not defended.

Front 9

Define territoriality.

Back 9

Territoriality is the defence of an area and its resources from others using methods like display, advertisement, or physical defence.

Front 10

Provide an example of territoriality.

Back 10

Some examples include: dog pees on a fire hydrant, grizzly bear rubs on tree to mark its scent, etc.

Front 11

What type of animals is territoriality common? (hint: there are 5)

Back 11

Territoriality is common in predators, most birds during nesting, many fish species during reproduction, social insects, and dragonflies.

Front 12

What influences the size of a territory?

Back 12

Factors that influence the size of a territory include body size, aggressive behaviour, habitat quality, population density, competition with others, ability to share resources.

Front 13

Black-capped chickadees and mountain chickadees often have territories that overlap. Is this an example of inter- or intra- specific territoriality?

Back 13

This kind of competition is an example of infraspecific territoriality.

Front 14

What is the cost-benefit ratio for territory size?

Back 14

The benefits (e.g. food, shelter, reproduction) increase substantially as territory size increases. However, as territory gets bigger, the cost of maintaining it (energy demand, defence, injury, and vigilance, increases exponentially.

Front 15

Provide a situation where an organisms territory cost would increase significantly.

Back 15

If a chickadee lived in a large territory and a hawk moved into its area, the chickadees cost values would increase significantly.

Front 16

Define asexual reproduction. What is another word for it?

Back 16

Asexual reproduction, or cloning, occurs when the offspring are genetically identical to their parent, as they share the same genetic code.

Front 17

In what organisms is asexual reproduction common?

Back 17

Asexual reproduction is common in bacteria, unicellular eukaryotes, and plants.

Front 18

What is the best predictor of asexual reproduction in animals?

Back 18

The best predictor of asexual reproduction in animals is a short lifespan in a relatively constant environment.

Front 19

Define sexual reproduction.

Back 19

Sexual reproduction occurs in most species, and involves genes from both the mother and father combining to form a new genotype different from their parents.

Front 20

What are the two categories of sexual reproduction?

Back 20

The two categories of sexual reproduction are dioecious and monoecious.

Front 21

What is dioecious?

Back 21

Dioecious means 'two houses', two sexes; the male and female organs are on separate individuals.

Front 22

What is monoecious?

Back 22

Monoecious means 'one house'; the male and female organs are on the same individual. Examples of this are bisexuals and hermaphrodites.

Front 23

What are the two types of hermaphrodites?

Back 23

The two types of hermaphrodites are simultaneous and sequential hermaphrodites.

Front 24

What are simultaneous hermaphrodites?

Back 24

Simultaneous hermaphrodites are hermaphrodites whose reproductive organs are fully developed at the same time.

Front 25

What are sequential hermaphrodites?

Back 25

Sequential hermaphrodites are individuals where the reproductive organs have developed at different times during their growth.

Front 26

Give an example of a sequential hermaphrodite?

Back 26

An example of a sequential hermaphrodite is a clownfish - when the female in the group dies out, the next biggest and highest up male will go through a sex change to become a male.

Front 27

What is Panmixis mating?

Back 27

Panmixis is the process of unrestricted, random mating - in other words, any member of the opposite sex in a population is a potential mate.

Front 28

Are panmixic species mono- or di-morphic?

Back 28

Panmixic species are monomorphic, meaning the sexes look alike.

Front 29

Give an example of a panmixic species.

Back 29

Monomorphic species include some marine invertebrates and marine schooling fishes.

Front 30

Give an example of panmixic mating.

Back 30

An example of panmixic mating is salmon during spawning season - the females lay eggs and the males release sperm, fertilizing the eggs randomly.

Front 31

Define polygamy.

Back 31

Polygamy is a mating process where the organism has multiple partners. It is widespread in most species.

Front 32

Are polygamous species mono- or di- morphic?

Back 32

Polygamous species are dimorphic, meaning the sexes look different.

Front 33

Who typically has the more elaborate ornamentation - the male or the female?

Back 33

The male.

Front 34

What are the two types of polygamy?

Back 34

The two types of polygamy are polygyny and polyandry.

Front 35

Define polygyny.

Back 35

Polygyny is a type of polygamous mating where the males mate with a multitude of females, but the females mate with one or few males.

Front 36

In what species is polygyny common in?

Back 36

Polygyny is common in fish, amphibians, reptiles, songbirds, and mammals.

Front 37

What is female defence polygyny? Name two species this is common in.

Back 37

Female defence polygyny is the event where an individual male defends a group of females. This is common in deer and primates.

Front 38

What is resource defence polygyny? Name two species it is common in.

Back 38

Resource defence polygyny is the event where an individual male defends resources (e.g. territory) that females will seek out. This is common in fish and songbirds.

Front 39

Define polyandry. What are the roles of both sexes?

Back 39

Polyandry is a type of polygamous mating in which a female will mate with many males but a male will only mate with one or few females. Females will defend the resources and compete for the males, while the males defend the eggs and become sexually inactive.

Front 40

Give an example of polyandric species.

Back 40

Species that exhibit polyandry include some shorebirds, and seahorses.

Front 41

Define monogamy. Are they mono- or di- morphic?

Back 41

Monogamous mating in species occurs when both individuals only mate with each other. Monogamous species are usually dimorphic.

Front 42

What surprising data has recent genetic fingerprinting research shown in terms of monogamous species?

Back 42

Recent research has shown that the offspring of many monogamous mammals and bird species often have more than one father - in other words, the female has been mating with multiple males regardless.

Front 43

Define sexual selection.

Back 43

Sexual selection is the tendency for an individual to be selective with whom they mate with.

Front 44

In most species, which sex invests more into reproduction and parental care?

Back 44

Females typically put more effort into reproduction and offspring care than males do.

Front 45

What is the fitness of offspring influenced by?

Back 45

Fitness of the offspring is largely influenced by their genetic makeup.

Front 46

Why are females choosier than males when picking a mate? Explain

Back 46

Females are choosier than males because their fitness cost of choosing poorly is higher than that of a male. This is because females have a limited number of eggs in their lifetime, while males have an unlimited number of sperm.

Front 47

What is male fitness increased by?

Back 47

Male fitness is increased by maximizing number of fertilized eggs (mating with lots of females).

Front 48

What is female fitness increased by?

Back 48

Female fitness is increased by maximizing genetic quality and genetic variability of their offspring.

Front 49

What are the seven criteria for mate choice?

Back 49

1. Nuptial Gift

2. Dominant/ Strong Male Preference

3. Handicapped Male Hypothesis

4. Parasite-Free Male Hypothesis

5. Symmetrical Male Hypothesis

6. Display Evaluation

7. Inbreeding Avoidance

Front 50

What is a nuptial gift? Give examples.

Back 50

A nuptial gift is a 'gift' that the male gives to the female to attract a mate. Examples of this include resources, food items, and territories.

Front 51

What nuptial gift does the Thynnine Wasp male provide to the female?

Back 51

The male Thynnine Wasp carries the female from flower to flower in order for her to feed and pollenate without exerting energy.

Front 52

What nuptial gift do male songbirds provide and how do they advertise it? How does the female choose their mate?

Back 52

During mating season, male songbirds defend a territory to allow foraging opportunities for females and future young. The males will sing personal songs in order to advertise the territory, which females will use to choose their mate, as the length and complexity of each male's song correlates to the territory size they hold.

Front 53

What is the concept of Dominant/Strong Male Preference when choosing a mate?

Back 53

Males will compete/fight amongst themselves during mating season to assert their dominance and prove they are the more favourable mate.

Front 54

Give some examples of species that partake in the Dominant/Strong Male Preference Phenomenon.

Back 54

Examples include bighorn sheep, elephant seals, damselflies/dragonflies.

Front 55

What is the Handicapped Male Hypothesis and who proposed it?

Back 55

The Handicapped Male Hypothesis states that "the expression of elaborate displays by mates which are COSTLY TO PRODUCE AND MAINTAIN give the female more information on the male's genetic quality". This hypothesis was proposed by Zahavi.

Front 56

Give an example of a species with a male handicap. What are their handicaps?

Back 56

Examples include: peacock with an excessively large tail; a rooster with an unnecessary set of head balls (LOL); a caribou with antlers.

Front 57

What is the male widowbird's handicap? How do the females use this to choose their mates and what two options does it leave them with?

Back 57

The male widowbird's tail is much longer than a female's, and each individual male has varying tail lengths. Females choose their mates based on their tail lengths, which leaves them with two options - if they choose a male with a shorter tail, it indicates increased foraging ability and predator evasion; if they choose one with a longer tail, it indicates the better genetic quality.

Front 58

What are the 5 main components of the Parasite-Free Male Hypothesis?

Back 58

1. Individuals have varying susceptibility to diseases which can lead to mortality in young

2. Immunocompetence can be heritable

3. Parasite-free males could have better physiological abilities and superior immunological genes

4. Bright displays are physiologically costly to produce

5. Mating with brightly coloured males provides offspring with genes that yield better immunocompetence.

Front 59

If you were to treat some pigeons with insecticide to kill live in their feathers, and leave others infected, which bird would the female choose? Explain.

Back 59

The female will choose the male who has been cleaned much more readily than they will choose those that are disease ridden. This is because those that are not diseased will exhibit iridescence on their neck, which is a sign of good immunocompetence.

Front 60

Who proposed the Parasite-Free Male Hypothesis?

Back 60

Hamilton and Zuk proposed the Parasite-Free Male Hypothesis.

Front 61

What is the Symmetrical Male Hypothesis?

Back 61

The Symmetrical Male Hypothesis theorizes that minor errors during embryological development/growth can cause slight asymmetries in structures.

Front 62

Give an example of asymmetrical occurrences in animals.

Back 62

Butterfly wings can have little patches on each wing that make them asymmetrical; caribou antlers can be different lengths/shapes.

Front 63

What five factors can cause asymmetries?

Back 63

Stress, pollutants, parasitism, homozygosity, and poor genotypes can all lead to asymmetries.

Front 64

Will females choose a male with more or less symmetry?

Back 64

Females will choose a mate with the highest level of symmetry.

Front 65

What is developmental homeostasis?

Back 65

Developmental homeostasis is the event in which excellent genotypes can fix asymmetries during embryological development to produce more symmetrical individuals.

Front 66

What do females evaluate when choosing a mate in terms of their display type?

Back 66

Females will evaluate the quality, complexity, and coordination of the display a potential mate is exhibiting in order to determine the best choice.

Front 67

What is inbreeding avoidance?

Back 67

Inbreeding avoidance are the varying mechanisms that all wild plants and animals have to avoid inbreeding.

Front 68

What is a major way in which many animal species detect "genetic kinship"? How do females use this to choose a mate?

Back 68

Many animals will detect genetic kinship using body odour (pheromones). Females typically choose a mate with the least similar body odour to themselves, AKA the least similar genotype.

Front 69

Human females on birth control preferred males who smelled the most similar to themselves - which is the complete opposite of what females not on the pill chose. Explain why.

Back 69

When females are pregnant, they typically want to be surrounded by family - people who smell similar (genetically similar) - as opposed to strangers because they want to protect their baby and themselves and believe they will be best taken care of that way. As birth control mimics pregnancy, it causes many females to be more attracted to males who smell similar to them.

Front 70

What is the major process that increases genetic variability in SMALL populations?

Back 70

The major process that increases genetic variability in small populations is immigration.

Front 71

What is the major feature of the Hamilton-Zuk Hypothesis?

Back 71

The major feature of the Hamilton-Zuk hypothesis is that bright plumage indicates good immunocompetence.

Front 72

What are the five advantages to group living?

Back 72

1. Increased search efficiency

2. Increased capture efficiency of large prey

3. Increased detection of predators

4. Increased defence against predators

5. Selfish-herd theory (Dilution effect)

Front 73

Give an example of how increased food search efficiency is exhibited in the wild.

Back 73

Songbirds detects seeds more efficiently, gulls detect fish more efficiently, etc.

Front 74

Give an example of an animal that has increased capture efficiency of large prey due to group living.

Back 74

Examples include African hunting dogs, wolves, lions, etc.

Front 75

What is the many eyes theory in terms of increased detection of predators?

Back 75

The many eyes theory states that more eyes looking from predators means there is a higher chance of actually spotting one.

Front 76

What is the Selfish Herd Theory? Give an example

Back 76

The selfish herd theory is the idea that each individual in a herd is only looking out for themselves. For example, if fish swam around alone, the chances of them personally being picked off by a predator is much higher than if they swam together in a school where they are many options for the predator to potentially kill.

Front 77

What are three disadvantages to living in a group?

Back 77

1. Shared resources and resource depletion.

2. Increased transmission of parasites.

3. Conflicts/stress

Front 78

Define life histories.

Back 78

Life histories are a set of rules and choices to an individual's schedule of reproduction.

Front 79

Define reproductive effort.

Back 79

Reproductive effort is the total quota that an individual makes for reproduction.

Front 80

What are the two categories of reproductive effort and what do they represent?

Back 80

1. R-selected: High number of eggs, offspring, and seeds; high population growth potential; boom or bust cycle; usually short-lived

2. K-selected: Low number of eggs/offspring; low population growth potential; stable populations; usually long-lived.

Front 81

Define Semelparous reproduction. Give an example of an organism it is common in.

Back 81

Semelparous Reproduction is the act of reproducing only once. It is common in most insects, cephalopods, salmon, etc.

Front 82

Define iteroparous reproduction. Give an example of an organism it is common in.

Back 82

Iteroparous reproduction is the act of reproducing repeatedly, usually on a yearly basis. It is common in most plants, other molluscs, most fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.

Front 83

Define precocial. Give an example of a species.

Back 83

Precocial young are those that are hatched/born in an advanced state and are able to feed themselves almost immediately. An example would be the semipalmated plover.

Front 84

Define altricial. What species are altricial?

Back 84

Altricial young are helpless and require extensive care. Species that sire altricial young are social insects (e.g. bees, ants, etc), some fish, amphibians, most birds, most mammals.

Front 85

What theory did David Lack propose in terms of bird clutch size?

Back 85

David Lack proposed that a bird's clutch size represents how many babies the parent can successfully raise, not how many the parent is capable of doing, without having a reduction in their future reproductive effort.

Front 86

A bird's clutch is artificially enlarged. What effect does this have on the chicks? What effect does this have on the parents?

Back 86

Chicks from the enlarged clutch had lower survival rates in the first winter and a reduced egg production as adults. Parents who took care of the enlarged clutch had reduced overwinter survival and egg production the following year.

Front 87

What effects did an artificially enlarged clutch have on Canadian geese parents?

Back 87

While chick survival was similar to a normal clutch, parents would have a delayed moulting and migration; reduced weight the next year; and a later breeding period the next year.

Front 88

What is the Age of first reproduction for guppies?

Back 88

The age of first reproduction for guppies is 3 weeks.

Front 89

What is the Age of first reproduction for Greenland Sharks?

Back 89

The age of first reproduction for Greenland Sharks is 100 years.

Front 90

What is the Age of first reproduction for songbirds?

Back 90

The age of first reproduction for songbirds is 6 months.

Front 91

What is the Age of first reproduction for albatrosses?

Back 91

The age of first reproduction for is 6-10 years.

Front 92

What is the Age of first reproduction for mice?

Back 92

The age of first reproduction for mice is 3 weeks.

Front 93

What is the Age of first reproduction for elephants, whales, humans?

Back 93

The age of first reproduction for elephants, whales, and humans is ~13 years.

Front 94

What is fecundity and what is it positively correlated to?

Back 94

Fecundity is the number of eggs an animal produces; it is positively correlated to body size.