Behavioral Biology Iv

Front 1

Reproductive behaviors regulated by hormones.

Back 1

-Aggression (by both males and females)

- Courtship behaviors
- Mate attachment
- Aggression towards infants (usually by males)

Front 2

Problems for adaptive sexual behavior adaptations

Back 2

- Environmental, cultural, and social explanations
- Generalizations about behavior are problematic
- Variation within and between cultures, between individuals, and within an individual’s lifetime
- Correlation doesn’t equal causation
- Mate choice in humans is far more complex

Front 3

Alternate explanations of rape

Back 3

- is a form of violent, antisocial behavior (nothing to do with reproduction)
- is a maladaptive by-product of male desire

Front 4

Circannual rhythms

Back 4

activities occur on an annual or seasonal cycle

Front 5

Polyphenism

Back 5

coexistence of several distinct phenotypes in a populations, without various intermediates

Front 6

Cannibalism occurs when

Back 6

-the population density is very high
-the population consists mostly of unrelated individuals
-there is already some size variation in the population

Front 7

Instinct (or fixed-action pattern)

Back 7

a behavior that appears in full the first time it is
performed, regardless of the animal’s experiences

Front 8

Sign stimulus (or releaser)

Back 8

the cue that triggers an instinctive behavior

Front 9

Developmental homeostasis

Back 9

the ability to develop more or less normally, despite defective genes and environments

Front 10

Associated reproductive patterns

Back 10

reproductive patterns in which hormonal activity activates behavioral responses on a short time scale

Front 11

Pluralism considerations

Back 11

-Some traits exist due to random factors, not natural selection
-No adaptation or selection on that particular trait, but its existence is correlated to selection on another trait
- Adaptation as a secondary utilization of parts present for reasons of architecture, development, or evolutionary history

Front 12

Caste system determination in ants

Back 12

diet fed to immatures

Front 13

Hypothesis for eusociality evolution

Back 13

evolved from simpler group behaviors.

Front 14

Subsocial insects

Back 14

interact with each other in a systematic
way apart from mating, but do not have all eusocial traits

Front 15

Benefits of subsocial aggregation

Back 15

stabilization of temperature andhumidity

Front 16

Haplodiploid hypothesis

Back 16

A female gets more genetic benefit from raising her sisters than from raising her own offspring

Front 17

Altruistic behavior

Back 17

a behavior disadvantageous to an individual but potentially helpful to others of its kind

Front 18

Benefits of Social Behavior

Back 18

-Improved foraging efficiency

-Protection from the elements

-Protection from predators

-

Front 19

Cost of Social Behavior

Back 19

increased pathogen and parasite infection rates

Front 20

Coefficient of relatedness

Back 20

probability of sharing an allele

Front 21

Costs of altruism

Back 21

- Alarm calls can attract a predator’s attention
- Mobbing behavior involves direct confrontation
with a predator

Front 22

Direct fitness

Back 22

a measure of reproductive success,
based on number of offspring that survive

Front 23

Indirect fitness

Back 23

a measure of reproductive success, based on number of relatives that survive & their
relatedness

Front 24

Inclusive fitness

Back 24

an individual’s total genetic contribution
to the next generation (= direct fitness + indirect fitness)

Front 25

Hamilton’s Rule

Back 25

a gene for altruism will only spread if
rbB > rcC

Front 26

rbB > rcC

Back 26

B = extra number of relatives that exist due to the altruist’s actions
• rb = coefficient of relatedness to those relatives
C = number of offspring not produced by the altruist due to its altruism
• rc = coefficient of relatedness between parent and offspring

Front 27

Cooperation

Back 27

both helper and recipient get immediate benefit

Front 28

Postponed cooperation

Back 28

both helper and recipient benefit, but benefit to helper is delayed

Front 29

Reciprocity

Back 29

both helper and recipient benefit, but benefit to
helper is delayed

Front 30

Conditions for Reciprocity and Postponed evolution

Back 30

-Multiple interactions over generations
-Long-term relationships among individuals

-Behaviors with a relatively low cost to the helper, large benefit to the receiver

Front 31

Costs of pseudopenises

Back 31

-Disruption of hormonal patterns in embryological development tends to be risky (birth defects, sterility, etc.)

-10-20% of spotted hyenas die giving birth
-60% of first-born cubs die during birth

Front 32

By-product hypothesis

Back 32

by-product of genes promote female aggression

Front 33

Social bonding hypothesis

Back 33

pseudopenis helps maintain dominance hierarchies, reduce tensions within the group

Front 34

Sexual mimicry hypothesis:

Back 34

females mimic males to avoid aggressive encounters

Front 35

Sensory exploitation hypothesis

Back 35

-Males developed a courtship ritual in which they presented females with an erect penis to signal non-threatening status
-Female-dominated hierarchies arose
-The male courtship ritual signaled subordination as well as lack of threat
-The ritual became decoupled from mating – used just to
signal subordination

Front 36

Eardrums on katydids and crickets
- Abdomen (grasshoppers, cicadas, moths, beetles)
- Thorax (moths, true bugs, mantids)
- Forewing (lacewings), antennae (mosquitoes)

Back 36

Legs

Front 37

Eardrums on grasshoppers, cicadas, moths, and beetles

Back 37

Abdomen

Front 38

Eardrums on moths, true bugs, and mantids

Back 38

Thorax

Front 39

Eardrums on lacewings

Back 39

Forewing

Front 40

Eardrums on mosquitoes

Back 40

Antennae

Front 41

Sensory exploitation

Back 41

signal givers take advantage of already existing
perceptual mechanisms in the signal receivers

Front 42

Evidence for the sensory exploitation hypothesis in mites

Back 42

- hungry females are more responsive to males than are well-fed females
- The water mite family tree indicates that the female’s prey-catching stance arose first, male leg-vibrating arose later

Front 43

Evidence for sensory exploitation

Back 43

predicts that receiving mechanisms should have the capacity to respond to novel signals

Front 44

Honest signals are likely when

Back 44

Signals are energetically costly and hard for weaker animals to imitate

Front 45

Reasons for imperfection in natural selection and adaptation

Back 45

-mutations occur by chance

-pleiotropy

-coevolution

Front 46

Current utility

Back 46

tells you something about why a trait might have evolved

Front 47

Aposematism

Back 47

warning coloration

Front 48

Characteristics of aposematic animals

Back 48

- are active during the day
- hang out where they are clearly visible
- often move slowly
- often hang out in groups

Front 49

Selfish Herds

Back 49

a group of individuals all acting selfishly, but
benefiting from being together

Front 50

Factors to take into consideration while foraging

Back 50

-where to look for food
-when to look
-what kind of food to look for
-how much time to spend getting food

Front 51

Conditional strategy

Back 51

behavior that can be switched or modified in response to environmental conditions

Front 52

Limits on optimality

Back 52

- Influences of predators
- Coexisting alternatives & frequency-dependent selection
- Conditional (flexible) strategies

Front 53

Factors for habitat selection

Back 53

-availability of food
-physical environment
-competition from others, of the same species or different species

Front 54

Costs of territoriality

Back 54

• Energy spent chasing off competitors
• Risks of injury
• Hormonal tradeoffs

Front 55

Benefits of territoriality

Back 55

- Control over food resources, good nesting sites
- Access to mates

Front 56

Resource-holding power

Back 56

animals that have territory got it because of some inherent superiority (e.g., larger size)

Front 57

Payoff asymmetry hypothesis

Back 57

the payoff for holding a territory increases with time

Front 58

Payoff asymmetry

Back 58

the resident has more to lose than the newcomer has to gain

Front 59

Costs of dispersal

Back 59

• Energy expended in movement
• Risk of exposure to predators during movement
• Risk of not finding a good new home

Front 60

Benefits of dispersal

Back 60

• Can match home to size/developmental stage
• Can flee a deteriorating home, keep up with changing conditions

Front 61

Inbreeding depression

Back 61

when closely related individuals mate, their offspring are much more likely to have two
copies of recessive alleles than the offspring of unrelated parents.

Front 62

Migration

Back 62

travel away from and subsequent return to the
same location, usually in an annual cycle

Front 63

Costs of migration

Back 63

Energy

Front 64

Benefits of migration

Back 64

-food

-water availability

-avoiding bad weather

Front 65

Evidence for intraspecific variation in migration

Back 65

• Dominance contests increase in frequency in fall
• Birds that were resident one winter tend to be resident the next
• Migratory birds often switch to being resident the next winter

Front 66

Parental investment

Back 66

expenditures of time, energy, and risks by parents to help their offspring survive

Front 67

Sex role reversals

Back 67

species in which males make the larger
parental investment

Front 68

Sexual selection

Back 68

The advantage which certain individuals have over others of the same sex and species, in exclusive relation to reproduction”

Front 69

Mate guarding

Back 69

preventing a mate from mating again

Front 70

Healthy mate theory

Back 70

displays accurately indicate the male’s health, parasite load, etc.

Front 71

Good genes theory

Back 71

displays offer information about a
male’s genetic viability

Front 72

Runaway selection theory

Back 72

discriminating females pass on their preferences to their daughter

Front 73

Traits of healthy males

Back 73

• resistance to disease
• good foraging skills
• ability to avoid predation

Front 74

Good genes predictions

Back 74

1) Males should show genetic differences in ability to survive
2) Male courtship behavior and ornamentation should provide honest signals of genetic viability
3) Females should choose mates on this basis
4) Their offspring should benefit from the female’s choice

Front 75

Chase-away selection hypothesis

Back 75

Males are selected to exploit female sensory systems, females are selected to resist

Front 76

Monogamy

Back 76

one mate

Front 77

Polygyny

Back 77

a male mates with many females

Front 78

Polyandry

Back 78

a female mates with many males

Front 79

Mate guarding hypothesis

Back 79

monogamy arose as a side effect of guarding females to prevent them from mating with
others

Front 80

Mate assistance hypothesis

Back 80

male contribution to care of offspring is especially valuable in some species

Front 81

Female-enforced monogamy

Back 81

females force males to help with offspring, prevent them from mating with other females

Front 82

Benefits in mate guarding

Back 82

-the females are willing to mate many times
- the operational sex ratio is biased towards males
- females are hard to find

Front 83

Darwinian puzzles to parental care

Back 83

- Brood parasitism
- Parental favoritism
- Siblicide

Front 84

Gradual shift hypothesis

Back 84

parasites started off by parasitizing closely related species, or even by parasitizing members of their own species

Front 85

Evidence for gradual shift

Back 85

- Intraspecific parasitism is documented in many unrelated parasite species
- Phylogenetic support

Front 86

Techniques to test for monogomy occurence

Back 86

- Brain anatomy
- Endocrinology
- DNA sequence analysis
- Genetic manipulations
- Controlled behavioral experiments
- Taxonomy and systematics

Front 87

Explainations for monogomy in prairie voles

Back 87

1. Brains differ from polygynous species

2. Monogamy has a genetic basis

3. Monogomous males leave more offspring

4. Monogomous ancestors

Front 88

Hypothesis for different dialects

Back 88

1. The differences are due to genetic differences
among the three populations

2. The differences are due to formative experiences

Front 89

Disadvantages of dialects

Back 89

- It takes time and energy
- It’s risky
- Birds that sing instinctively still get those mate-finding and species-identity benefits

Front 90

Advantages of dialects

Back 90

- Matching the acoustical environment
- Working with the social environment
- Female preference

Front 91

Female preference conclusions

Back 91

-the ability to learn a dialect may be correlated with male health
- females notice differences in dialects
- females may make choices based on what dialect tells them about male quality

Front 92

Ultimate causes for bird songs

Back 92

• The ability to learn songs occurs in three orders of birds
• Song-learning ability is a variable trait
• Some of the differences in song and learning ability are heritable
• Songs help communicate a male’s capacity to deal with rivals, his desirability as a mate (health, etc.)
• Differences in song and learning ability can thus lead to differences in reproduction

Front 93

Jobs of worker bees

Back 93

• Caring for immatures
• Building and maintaining the hive
• Processing and storing food
• Regulating the temperature of the hive
• Defending the hive from parasites and predators
• Collecting pollen and necta

Front 94

Learning

Back 94

A (relatively permanent) change in an individual’s behavior that occurs as a result of experience

Front 95

Imprinting

Back 95

the process by which early social interactions
(usually with parents) have a formative effect on later behavioral patterns

Front 96

Spatial Learning

Back 96

learning the relationships of objects in space

Front 97

Operant conditioning

Back 97

learning to associate a voluntary action with its
consequences

Front 98

Conditions for evolutionary change

Back 98

-Variation
-Heritable variation
-Differences in reproductive success

Front 99

Characteristics of eusocial insects

Back 99

-Division of labor
-Members cooperate in offspring care
-Overlap of generations

Front 100

Examples of subsocial traits

Back 100

-Feed/rest together
-Parental care
-No division
-Join together & build simple structures

Front 101

Adaptive value

Back 101

an advantage to the animal in terms of survival & reproduction.

Front 102

Conditions for postponed cooperation

Back 102

-Multiple interactions over generations
-Long-term relationships among individuals
-Behaviors with a relatively low cost to helper

Front 103

Pleiotropy

Back 103

a given gene may have >1 effect, and not
all of the effects are positive

Front 104

Two things about gametes

Back 104

-need to be able to disperse to fertilize other gametes

-need to supply resources to the developing offspring

Front 105

Frequency-dependent selection

Back 105

The fitness of a phenotype depends on its frequency in the population

Front 106

Female defense polygyny

Back 106

males compete for access to groups of females

Front 107

Resource defense polygyny

Back 107

males compete for control of resources that females will visit

Front 108

Scramble competition polygyny

Back 108

males search for females, try to find as many as possible

Front 109

Lek polygyny

Back 109

males congregate in a discrete area used just for mating displays

Front 110

Genetic compatibility hypothesis

Back 110

The more males, the better chances of finding a genetically compatible mate.

Front 111

Better protection hypothesis

Back 111

more mates equals more help in fending off intruding males.

Front 112

Benefit of brood parasitism

Back 112

no parental care needed by parents

Front 113

Costs of brood parasitism

Back 113

risk of recognition

Front 114

Characteristics of sex role reversals

Back 114

-Operational sex ratio should be biased towards females
-Females should compete with each other for mates
-Males should be choosy