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76 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Endocrine Glands
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ductless glands that secrete hormones
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Hormones
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chemicals that are transported by blood with effect on distant target cells
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Peptide hormones
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binds to receptors on the surface of cells
(strands of amino acids) |
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Steroid Hormones
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can cross the cell membrane and bind to receptors within the cell.
Many steroid hormones can directly activate gene expression |
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Emotions as response patterns
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behavioral: muscular movements appropriate to situation
autonomic: facilitate behavior by providing quick mobilization of energy hormonal: reinforce autonomic responses; only for long-lasting things (stress) |
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Neural control of emotional responses
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each type of emotional response controlled by separate neural systems
integration of all these structure seems to be controlled by the amygdala |
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Central Nucleus of the amygdala
-what it is -lesion -stimulate -learning -drugs |
what: control center of the brain for emotional responses
lesion: absence of fear in animals and lower levels of stress hormones stimulate: physiological and behavioral signs of fear learning: conditioned emotional responses do not occur if leisoned drugs: central nucleus has lots of opiate and GABA receptors- opiates and BZDs block learning and expression of conditioned emotional responses |
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Orbitofrontal Cortex
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critical for perception of social situations and assessing personal consequences of what is happening presently
translates judgments into appropriate feelings and behaviors damage reduces people's inhibitions and concerns become indifferent to consequences of their actions pain doesn't bother them- show no emotional response |
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Frontal Lobe (in regards to removing it)
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when removed in chimpanzees, violent emotional reactions were eliminated
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Prefrontal Lobotomy
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relief from emotional anguish
no intellectual side affects became irresponsible and childish- unable to make/carry out plans all emotional reactions were eliminated |
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"common sense" theory
(of emotions as feelings) |
Frightening Situation --> Emotion (Fear) --> Response (Increased heart rate)
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James-Lange theory
(of emotions as feelings) |
Frightening Situation --> Response --> Emotion
patterns of emotional responses and their outward expression give rise to feelings Evidence: -people with damage to the autonomic system show less intense feelings -stimulated responses (make people make faces) alter activity of the autonomic nervous system |
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Stressor
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a stimulus or situation that produces a stress response
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Stress Response
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a physiological or behavioral reaction caused by perception of aversive/threatening stimuli or situations
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Epinephrine
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adrenalin
cause energy to become available for muscles adrenal gland hormone made in the brain and can be used as neurotransmitter |
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norepinephrine
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adrenal gland hormone
increase blood flow by making the heart pump harder stressors can cause increase in it from brainstem neurons release of it is controlled by the central nucleus of the amygdala |
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Glucocorticoids
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break down proteins and convert them to glucose for energy, increase blood flow, and stimulate behavioral responsiveness
secretion is controlled by neurons in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus |
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Consequences of long term exposure to glucocorticoids
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increased blood pressure
inhibited growth infertility suppression of the immune system brain damage (can cause cell death in hippocampus which can lead to memory loss) |
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Organizing Effects
(sexual development) |
determine whether the brain and body will develop as a male or female during a sensitive stage of development
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Activating Effects
(sexual development) |
occur when a hormone triggers a particular response
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Mullerian System
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leads to female tract
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Wolffian System
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leads to male tract
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Male Development
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possess SRY gene on Y chromosome
SRY gene produces H-Y antigen which causes formation of testes testes make Mullerian system inhibiting substance (defeminizes) and androgens (masculinizes) |
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Female Development
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absence of SRY gene leads to development of ovaries
without androgens, wolffian system withers away estrogen comes after reproductive tract has formed |
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Turner's Syndrome
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XO
no ovaries or testes but looks female |
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Androgen Insensitivity Hormone
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XY
but since testosterone is an androgen, look female |
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female reproductive cycle
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in mammals, called estrous cycle
in primates, called menstrual cycle menstrual cycle dependent on neuroendocrine control |
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arcuate nucleus
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in the hypothalamus
releases luteinizing hormone releasing hormone (LHRH) for puberty |
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Gonadotrophic Hormones
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Follice-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH)
released by anterior pituitary glands cause the maturation of gametes (ova and sperm) |
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Menstrual Cycle
(how it works) |
estradiol has positive feedback on LH and negative feedback on FSH
LH surge causes ovulation at mid-cycle, estradiol has positive feedback on itself and progesterone |
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Brain differences in sexual orientation
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Suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) is larger in homosexual men than in heterosexual men/women
Anterior commissure is larger in homosexual men/heterosexual women than in heterosexual men 3rd interstitial nucleus of the hypothalamus (INAH-3) is larger in heterosexual men than homosexual men/heterosexual women |
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Genetics in sexual orientation
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twin studies show that there is a correlation of the same sexual orientation with siblings--high for identical/fraternal twins
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What does EEG Measure?
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brain waves
firing rate of neurons variance in voltage over time |
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Slow potential activity of EEG comes from...
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dendrites and soma
in layers 1-3 of the cortex |
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Lucid Dreaming
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awareness of dreaming from within the dream
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Sleep is...
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active
complex essential highly regulated involves different neuronal groups composed of REM sleep and NREM sleep |
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Sleep- learning and memory
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REM sleep and Stage 3/4 are vital to consolidation of new information
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Sleep Apnea
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excessive daytime sleeping
morbid obesity snoring witnessed apneas morning headache & dry mouth narrowed airway |
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Periodic Leg Movements
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excessive daytime sleeping
restless legs syndrome witnessed twitching complaint of insomnia complaint of shallow sleep |
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Narcolepsy
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excessive daytime sleepiness
hallucinations sleep attacks cataplexy sleep paralysis complaint of insomnia |
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Phase Delay Syndrome
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complaint of sleep onset insomnia
discrepant sleep schedules normal sleep when schedule is ab libitum age |
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Insomnia
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increased sleep latency
early morning awakenings decreased total sleep non-restorative sleep fatigue concentration problems memory problems performance decrements |
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How do drugs get into the brain?
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Most of them are lipid soluble
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Important in Addiction
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nucleus accumbens, VTA, substantia nigra
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Cocaine
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blocks the reuptake of Dopamine
effects: pleasure, enhance attention |
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Amphetamine
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increases release of dopamine by inverting presynaptic pumps
Chronic use can induce psychosis with symptoms similar to schizophrenia such as paranoia, visual and auditory hallucinations. |
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Ecstasy
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MDMA
stimulates the release of dopamine at low dose and serotonin at higher dose |
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Nicotine
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agaonist of the achetyl-choline nicotinic receptors. Increases dopamine release in the nucleus accumbens
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Caffeine
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blocks adenosine (adenosine inhibits dopamine and acetylcholine release)
constricts blood vessels in the brain |
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Alcohol
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inhibits flow of sodium across the membrane
decreases serotonin activity facilitates GABA responses blocks glutamate receptors increases dopamine activity |
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Marijuana
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binds cannabinoid receptors
leads to euphoria, lower IQ, reduced short term memory, paranoia prevents nausea through blocking of serotonin type 3 synapse |
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Salvia
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hallucinogenic drug
binds the kappa opioid receptor short term effects Effects: hallucinations, dissociation from self, as if traveling through time |
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Ketamine
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blocks NMDA receptor
out of body experience, hallucinogenic |
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LSD
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agonist of serotonin type 2 receptors
leads to hallucinations |
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Opiates
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derived from the opium poppy
purified forms: heroin, morphin binds opioid receptors in the brain results in increased dopamine release |
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Rationalization
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reinforces behavior
plays a factor in addiction |
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Hypovolemia
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reduction in blood (extracellular) volume
detected by baroreceptor and blood flow receptors--both cause kidneys to release Renin renin causes synthesis of angiotensin II in the blood Angiotensin causes conservation of water and increased thirst |
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Paraventricular Nucleus (PVN)
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area of hypothalamus in which activity tends to limit meal size and damage leads to excessively large meals
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Angiotensin
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responsible for conserving water and increasing thirst (retain water)
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Effects of Angiotensin
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secretion of aldosterone by adrenal glands (retention of sodium in kidneys and salt appetite)
secretion of vasopressin for water retention contraction of blood vessels to increase blood pressure stimulation of receptors in SFO in brain to cause drinking |
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Glycogen
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stored in the liver
gets converted into glucose |
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Insulin
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promotes storage of energy
promotes storage of glucose, fat, and protein in cells lowers levels of fuel molecules in the blood |
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Glucagon
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promotes use of energy
stimulates the liver to convert stored glycogen to glucose more glucose in the blood allows use by brain and body |
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Set-point theory (of hunger regulation)
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bodies have a specific energy level
hunger signals deficit in energy this theory in dependent on negative feedback |
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Positive-Incentive Theory
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ingestive behaviors are motivated by anticipated pleasurable effects
many factors influence the incentive for eating |
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Leptin
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gene responsible for obesity (mutation)
when we eat, leptin is released into the blood from fat cells leptin enters the hypothalamus and causes release of peptides to inhibit feeding mutation obese has a defective leptin gene (doesn't produce leptin) which disrupts normal weight control |
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Neural mechanisms of hunger/satiety
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arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus has neurons that cause hunger and that cause satiety
these neurons release melanocortin to stimulate the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) neurons that cause hunger release neuropeptide Y that inhibits the satiety neurons in the arcuate nucleus and PVN |
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Ventromedial Nucleus
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helps us stop eating
lesions cause increased insulin levels, production of body fat and decreased fat breakdown eating continue to provide energy for immediate needs |
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hyperphagia
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bilateral lesions to ventromedial nucleus or paraventricular nucleus cause excessive eating
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Paraventricular Nucleus (PVN)
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helps us stop eating
inhibits lateral hypothalamus (which stimulates eating) |
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Lateral Hypothalamus
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stimulates hunger
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aphagia
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bilateral lesions to lateral hypothalamus
complete cessation of feeding lesions cause general decreases in responsiveness and movement (many not be specific to eating) |
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Factors influencing how much we eat
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calories/volume can influence intake (if more calories, you consume less)
"Cafeteria" Diet- variety of food sources increased intake sensory-specific satiety encourages consumption of a varied diet |
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Case of the Frozen Addict
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rats not always a good substitute for human testing--need primates
making MPPP- designer drug side product on MPTP- not directly harmful MPTP mixes with MAO enzyme to produce MPP+ MPP+ kills dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra which is really harmful |
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Stages of sleep
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Stage 1: beginning of sleep. irregular, jagged, low-voltage waves.
Stage 2: sleep spindles (short burst of 12-14 Hz waves) and K complexes (sharp high amplitude wave) Stage 3/4: Slow wave sleep. heart rate/breathing rate decrease. slow, large amplitude waves |
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REM Sleep
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EEG looks like wakefulness
dreams (but not all dreams) important to consolidation of memory more common towards the end of the night |
