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129 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
categories of learning:
associative, non-associative |
associative: association between two or more stimuli, between stimulus and response
- conditioning: classical - stimulus acquires significance through repetition; instrumental: behavior increased due to effect it has on environment nonassociative: single stimulus, change in behavior - habituation: decrease in behavior resulting from repetition - sensitization: increase in sensitivity to stimulation |
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categories of memory:
declarative, non-declarative |
declarative: "what" - information and facts acquired through learning
- left frontal lobe, entorhinal cortex nondeclarative: "how" - motor or perceptual skill, performance from memory - less localized than declarative memory |
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law of effect
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thorndike
behavior with positive outcome will be repeated, those with negative outcomes will be reduced |
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memory persistence
consolidation |
classification of memory in terms of time frame (sensory - seconds, short-term, intermediate-term, long-term)
consolidation: transfer of information to long-term memory |
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stages of processing of declarative memory (4)
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1. encoding: information entering sensory channels --> STM
2. consolidation: STM, ITM --> LTM - involves MTL, hippocampus 3. storage: distributed in cortex, requires protein synthesis 4. retrieval: access to stored information; reconsolidated after access (makes information subject to modification) |
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medial temporal lobe memory system
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hippocampus, rhinal sulcus, perirhinal cortex, parahippocampal cortex
- information flow: parahippocampal, rhinal cortical areas --> hippocampus |
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dual-trace hypothesis of memory
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hebb
formation of memory sets up brief activity in a neural circuit (STM), sustained activity builds stable circuit resulting in change in nervous system (LTM) |
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glutamate receptors and synaptic mechanisms of memory
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glutamate activates AMPA receptor in postsynaptic cell --> NA+ enters cell --> depolarization --> Mg2+ block released --> NMDA accepts glutamate, Ca2+ enters cell --> protein synthesis --> increased synaptic effectiveness (increased transmitter release, number of receptors)
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memory in aging
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impairments in declarative memory that require organizational effort
potential causes: impaired representation of information by neural circuits, loss of neurons/neural connections, impaired cholinergic system |
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Ivan Pavlov
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classical conditioning: dogs trained to salivate at sound of bell
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EL Thorndike
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law of effect, instrumental learning
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BF Skinner
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radical behaviorism: all behavior is result of stimulus-response relationship, instrumental learning
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Patient HM
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anterograde amnesia, long-term memory disability, declarative memory disability following surgical damage to hippocampus, amygdala, medial lobe tissue
- evidence that short-term memory is different from long-term memory |
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Mortimer Mishkin
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DMNS test to test declarative memory in animals; importance of MTL, hippocampus, prefrontal cortex in memory functions
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Donald Hebb
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Hebbian synapses: synapses must be active and effective to be strengthened, grow weaker if they are not effective (strengthen synapse to encode memory); Hebbian plasticity
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Eric Kandel
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Aplysia research
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classical conditioning
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stimulus acquires significance through repetition
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operant/instrumental conditionin
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behavior is increased due to effect it has on the environment
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habituation
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decreased response resulting from repetition
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sensitization
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increased sensitivity to stimulation
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amnesia: retrograde, anterograde
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retrograde: difficulty retrieving memories formed before onset
anterograde; difficulty forming new memories after onset |
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Korsakoff's syndrome
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severe anterograde amnesia, confabulation (create false stories to fill in gaps in memory), denial of disorder
- damage to dorsomedial thalamus, basal forebrain; cause by thiamine deficiency characteristic of alcoholism |
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episodic vs. semantic memory
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episodic: "experience" - autobiographical information, life history, personal events
- localized semantic: "words" - general knowledge, facts, verbal information; no personal information attached - distributed throughout brain by type |
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Hebbian plasticity
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"cells that fire together, wire together; cells that fail to sync, lose their link"
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Aplysia
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sea slug
used to study habituation and sensitization - gill-withdrawal reflex: stimulate siphon, organism withdraws siphon/gill; repeated stimulation --> withdrawal ceases (habituation); strong stimulus to siphon --> heightened sensitivity, increases withdrawal (sensitization) |
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LTP
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long-term potentiation
alters strength of synapses, increases EPSPs - occurs in hippocampus, depends on NMDA receptors |
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NMDA receptor
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ligand- and voltage- gated, blocked by Mg2+
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Morris Water Maze
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behavioral assay that allows for memory testing in animals
- mouse must find platform, learns over repeated trials to go to it |
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Alzheimer's disease
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progressive process: premature aging of brain, memory loss of recent events
- appears in older people - cortical shrinkage, degeneration of cholinergic neurotransmitter system |
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DNMS test
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test of declarative memory (especially ITM)
- animals exposed to one object, must choose the different one following variable delay (trial and error, reward) |
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set point
set zone |
set point: point of reference in a negative feedback system
set zone: range of a variable that a feedback system tries to maintain |
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negative feedback
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output of hormone feeds back to inhibit drive for more of that hormone; can be compared to a thermostat
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thermoregulation: behavioral, physiological
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behavioral: locomotion, heat seeking/avoidance
physiological: receptors in skin provide information to CNS, intiates action in anticipation of a change in core temperature - pre-optic area warms body - anterior hypothalamus cools body |
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endocrine system: mode of communication
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1. glands secrete hormones
2. hormones circulate in bloodstream, influence remote target tissues that have specific receptors for specific proteins |
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function of anterior, posterior pituitary glands
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anterior: receives releasing hormones (deposited by neurosecretory cells, travel through veins to anterior pituitary), releases tropic hormones that travel through system to target endocrine gland
posterior: bloodstream through pituitary receives hormones oxytocin, vasopressin directly from hypothalamus |
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regulation of hydration: hypovolemic thirst, osmotic thirst
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hypovolemic thirst: baroreceptors detect drop in extracellular volume
- thirst and salt hunger both stimulated (prevents hypotonic extracellular fluid - would occur if only thirst was triggered); vasopressin released osmotic: triggered by change in concentration in extracellular fluid (often a result of obligatory water loss) osmosensory neurons respond to changes in osmotic pressure, cause us to seek water to return extracellular fluid to isotonic state |
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regulation of food intake
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energy and nutrients obtained through metabolism, breaking down complex molecules in food
hypothalamus involved in regulation of feeding behavior (VMH, LH) |
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dual-center theory of feeding control
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ventromedial hypothalamus as "satiety" center, stimulation stops eating
lateral hypothalamus as "hunger" center, stimulation induces eating |
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circadian, seasonal rhythms
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circadian rhythm: pattern of behavioral, biochemical, physiological fluctuation with a period of 24 hours
- measured by activity levels - generated by endogenous clock seasonal rhythms: breeding, body weight dependent upon seasons; involve a separate mechanism from circadian rhythms |
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stages of sleep and waking
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slow-wave sleep (4 stages), REM
progression of sleep stages varies with time (sleep cycles) |
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function of sleep
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energy conservation
body restoration protein synthesis predator avoidance memory consolidation |
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regulation of sleep by brain
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forebrain: SWS generator, releases GABA in posterior hypothalamus
reticular formation: wakes up forebrain pons: triggers REM, GABA inhibits motoneurons to produce muscle tone loss characteristic of REM hypothalamus coordinates all this control hormones involved: 5HT, NE, ACh |
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endotherm
ectotherm |
endotherm: generates and regulates body heat internally, automatically
ectotherm: actively obtains heat from environment, behavioral regulation |
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hormones:
steriod, protein |
hormones: chemicals secreted by one group of cells, carried through bloodstream to other parts of the body, where they act on specific target tissues to produce specific physiological effects
steroid hormones: bind to specific receptor proteins inside cell, control specific gene expression - slow-acting but produce long-lasting effects protein hormones: use second messengers to transfer information - act rapidly |
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neurosecretory cell
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neuron that releases hormones into blood vessels, rather than into other cells
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releasing hormone
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hormones that control pituitary release of tropic hormones
- produced in hypothalamus |
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oxytocin
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hormone responsible for reproductive/parental behaviors: childbirth contractions, milk-letdown
in voles, increase female bonding; in humans, low levels of oxytocin result in weak social attachment, low trust |
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vasopressin
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hormone responsible for thirst/water regulation, salt retention; constriction of blood vessels to increase blood pressure
in voles: increases male bonding (fewer vasopressin receptors --> promiscuity) |
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osmotic thirst
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thirst created by too much salt in extracellular fluid, triggered by obligatory water loss (respiration, perspiration, urination)
osmosensory neurons respond to changes in osmotic pressure |
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hypovolemic thirst
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thirst created by reduction in fluid volume; stimulates release of vasopressin
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basal metabolism
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rate of metabolism set by body in an attempt to regulate body at "ideal" weight
protects energy reserves, opposes weight loss with reduction in food intake |
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glucose
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principal sugar used by body for energy
converted to glycogen by insulin for long-term storage, glucagon reconverts glycogen to glucose as needed |
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leptin
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hormone produced by fat cells, signals amount of energy reserve in fat cells
transgenic mice with defective gene for leptin do not produce leptin, become obese |
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diabetes mellitus
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results from cessation of insulin production by pancreas, requires exogenous insulin to make use of glucose
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obesity
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a condition of extreme overweight
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body mass index
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measurement that relates weight to height
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entrainment
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process of synchronizing a biological rhythm to an environmental stimulus (light-dark cycle)
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endogenous clock
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normally set by light, generates circadian rhythms
- located in suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) |
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retinohypothalamic tract
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retinal ganglion cells separate from main visual system, synapse within SCN
implications in circadian rhythms |
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photosensitive ganglion cells
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cells in retinohypothalamic tract that contain melanopsin, a photopigment that makes them sensitive to light
- release glutamate |
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slow wave sleep
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4 stages
stage 1: heart rate and muscle tension decrease 45-50% of sleep is stage 2 sleep |
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REM
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stage 5 sleep
"paradoxical" sleep: EEG is like the awake state loss of muscle tone, dreaming, nightmares |
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REM behavior disorder
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person physically acts out a dream
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narcolepsy
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frequent, intense episodes of sleep at any time during waking hours
often enter REM immediately |
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hypocretin
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neuropeptide that keeps sleep at bay, prevents REM --> awake immediately
mutations cause narcolepsy |
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sleep apnea
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unreliable respiration during sleep
- may result from over-relaxation fo throat, diaphragm, abnormality of brainstem respiratory control |
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insulin
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hormone that enables body to make glucose
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interaction of brain, PNS, endocrine system, immune system
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autonomic nerve fibers connected to immune system organs allow brain to affect immune system
brain monitors immune response to make sure it isn't too intense - ACh release prevents overstimulation of immune cells |
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James-Lange theory
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emotional experience result of physiological arousal
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Schachter and Singer
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inject epinephrine, group told "no effect" experienced no emotion, group told "heart will race" experienced emotion - emotional labels depend upon interpretation of situation
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experience vs. genetic determinants of emotion
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emotion develops during first 9 months after birth
Jerome Kagan: exposed infants to alcohol swab, high reactivity in infancy predicts later anxiety, insecurity |
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neural reward network
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medial forebrain bundle: axons that yield strong self-stimulation behavior (self-stimulation: animals will work to produce electrical stimulation)
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organization of the limbic system
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MacLean
amygdala, hippocampus, parahippocampal gyrus |
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amygdala:
organization, effects on behavior |
organization; receives input from all sensory systems via thalamus; also receives input from sensory cortex, hippocampus
effects on behavior: closely associated with negative emotions (fear, anxiety, aggression, rage); electrical stimulation of amygdala provokes fear, aggression |
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role of frontal cortex on emotional expression
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Phineas Gage
sham rage |
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role of neural networks, neuromodulatory systems in cyclic disorders (OCD, Tourette's, Bipolar disorder, Major depression)
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OCD: increased activity in orbitofrontal and cingulate cortex, caudate nuclei; loop between frontal, parietal, thalamic, and basal ganglia structures; may be a serotonin system disorder
Tourette's: associated with basal ganglia, dopamine system Bipolar disorder: treatments aim to affect ionic balance across neural membrance Major depression: increased activity in orbitofrontal cortex, amygdala; decreased activity in parietal, anterior cingulate, posterior temporal cortex |
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Charles Darwin
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nature of emotions similar across animals
emotional expression as a form of communication |
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William James
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emotions are perceptions of bodily changes, emotions generated by physiological responses
problem: physiological responses similar across many emotions, too slow to be primary |
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Paul Ekman
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classification of emotion: 8 facial expressions with universal interpretation
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James Papez
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neural circuit for mechanisms of emotion
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Joseph LeDoux
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amygdala model with 3 output pathways: emotional behavior, autonomic response, hormonal response
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sham rage
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animals lacking cerebral cortex respond to random stimuli with sudden, intense rage
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Kluver-Bucy syndrome
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damage to large areas of temporal lobes results in tame, submissive behavior; lack of emotion or affect
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Papez neural circuit
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thalamus --> sensory cortex --> cingulate cortex --> hippocampus --> hypothalamus; excludes amygdala
allows for interaction between thoughts and feelings |
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MacLean's model of emotional control
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modified Papez's circuit to include amygdala; "limbic system"
three levels of behavioral control: - brainstem; primitive, reflexive, stereotyped, survival-related - limbic: regulatory, reproductive, emotional, survival - cerebral: self-control, rational thought, modulation of limbic system |
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amygdala
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links emotional expression and memory
lesions --> loss of fear 5HT, DA, NE, ACh released in response to amygdala activation |
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fear conditioning
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classical conditioning example
LTP in amygdala: neurons in amygdala encode association of stimuli and shock |
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post-traumatic stress disorder
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intrusive recurrence of emotional arousal associated with a traumatic event
memory abnormalities (retrograde amnesia), flashbacks, heightened sensitivity to certain sensory stimuli may result from abnormal endocrine function (imbalance in stress hormones) |
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extinction
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breaks stimulus-response relationship in emotional learning, but amygdala retains "memory"
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stress
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stress stimuli + cognitive assessment of stimuli + stress responses
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panic attack
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recurrent transient episodes of intense fear, anxiety
- increased release of NE; associated with temporal lobe, anterior cingulate gyrus, frontal cortex abnormalities |
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benzodiazepines
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bind to endogenous receptor sites on GABA receptors, enhance action of GABA in brain
- GABA is an inhibitory ion channel --> hyperpolarizes cell, making it harder to excite |
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orphan receptor
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receptor for which no endogenous ligand has been discovered
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phobia
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intense, irrational fear; nonspecific arousal associated with a specific object, activity, or situation
- may be learned or conditioned fear |
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OCD
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recurrent thoughts, actions repeated many times
may be a serotonin system disorder |
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Tourette's syndrome
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repetitive motor behaviors, tics
strong genetic component; more common in males childhood onset |
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Bipolar disorder
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alternating bouts of mania and depression
teenage onset; affects men and women equally treatable with lithium and anti-convulsants |
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Major depression
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chronic, profound unhappiness, hopelessness, universal pessimism; lost of energy, interests, appetite; suicidal tendencies
genetic component; affects women more than men adult onset typical |
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monozygotic twins vs. dizygotic twins
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monozygotic twins: derived from a single fertilized egg (identical twins; same genotype)
dizygotic twins: derived from separate eggs (fraternal twins) |
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SSRI
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selective serotonin reuptake inhibitor
blocks serotonin reuptake, flooding the system with serotonin, which is negatively correlated with aggression |
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frontal cortex modulation of limbic system
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decreased activity in prefrontal cortex leads to hyperactivity in mesolimbic pathway
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theories of schizophrenia:
neurodevelopmental, dopamine |
neurodevelopmental: abnormalities in structure and function set in motion by genetic or environmental insult in utero
dopamine: specific disorder of mesolimbic-cortical dopamine pathway; hyperactivity resembles psychosis |
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drugs affect all stages of neural transmission
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presynaptic: drugs prevent key compounds from being replaced in axon terminals, preventing production of transmitter molecules/vesicles and causing the failure of synaptic transmission
postsynaptic: receptors are blocked/activated by drugs |
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drug abuse
drug dependence |
abuse: difficult to determine which mechanisms are most important in producing dependence because, like other drugs, addictive substances produce multiple effects
- people differ in vulnerability: men more likely to abuse than women; genetic predisposition; depends upon personal characteristics, family situation, environment dependence: aka addiction; defined as continued use of substance despite clear evidence of its detrimental effects - has psychological, behavioral, physiological components |
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addiction and the neural reward network
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mesolimbic-cortical reward network active in development of drug dependence
increased release of dopamine in nucleus accumbens accompanies cocained delivery |
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schizophrenia
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thought disorder - impairment in logical structure of thought
develops in adolescence ventricular enlargement, shrunken and disordered hippocampus (degree of disorganization correlated to severity of schizophrenia); under-activity in frontal cortex |
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positive symptoms
negative symptoms |
positive symptoms: abnormal behaviors are gained
negative symptoms: loss of normal function |
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concordance
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referring to any trait that is seen in both individuals of a pair of twins
higher concordance among monozygotic twins for schizophrenia |
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drug affinity
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degree of chemical attraction between ligand and receptor
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drug induced psychosis
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PCP inactivates NMDA receptors, preventing glutamate from acting on cell
similar process seen in amphetamine use |
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non-competitive antagonist
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does not block site of glutamate binding - renders receptor ineffective at another location along receptor
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psychopathy
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extreme disruption of normal social regulation of behavior, impulsive, severe emotional detachment, blunted response to "violence" symbols
reduced prefrontal cortex activity, shrunken prefrontal cortex |
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drug tolerance
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successive treatments/doses have decreasing effect
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up-regulation
down-regulation |
up-regulation: increases number of receptors available to receptor's antagonist
down-regulation: decreases number of receptors available both are types of functional tolerance: body attempting to counter drug's effect |
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dose-response relationship
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size of dose vs. effect of drug
reflection of potency/safety of drug |
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withdrawal symptoms
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unpleasant sensations associated with sudden removal of chronically used drug
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what does patient HM tell us about how memory works? about how our personal history shapes who we are?
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short-term, long-term memory are different
despite anterograde amnesia, was still a functioning member of society. skills learned, experiences from past was all he was able to base his life off of |
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how does plasticity in the form of LTP relate to developmental plasticity?
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hebbian synapses: strengthening relies on us
in the same way, enriched environments lead to strengthening of skills during periods of plasticity |
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the hypothalamus is critically placed and connected to regulate virtually all vital functions for the organism. how would we survive if the hypothalamus was damaged?
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we would be incapable of regulatory function, so we would have to rely on our environments to the extent that we would have little freedom
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how do studies of emotion, anxiety disorders, and mental illness illustrate the importance of frontal cortex for human behavior?
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phineas gage
major depression, ocd result from orbitofrontal dysfunction schizophrenia: under-activity in frontal cortex |
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why might two genetically identical individuals raised in the same environment have a different susceptibility for addiction or mental illness?
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influence of oxytocin, vasopressin
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given the high degree of interaction among the many systems of the body (nervous, endocrine, immune, skeletal), what does it mean to call the CNS the "master controller"?
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all information goes through CNS in some form or another
brain monitors endocrine and immune systems spinal cord directly manages skeletal system |
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how important is the synapse to the functioning of and ultimate behavior of organisms? what would we be like if golgi had been right?
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golgi proposed continuity among cells, no synapses
as mechanisms of communication, synapses are crucial. there would be fewer disorders, since disorders are often the result of miscommunication among synapses, but drugs would not work |
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what do cases like phineas gage tell us about the importance of frontal cortex for determining who we are?
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complete change in personality following injury to frontal cortex shows the implications of the frontal cortex in personality
OCD, depression also affected by frontal cortex |
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what is the relationship between the "old brain" and the neocortex? From a comparative perspective, how does the amount and distribution of neocortex relate to the behavior of the organism?
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"old brain": reflex, homeostatic regulatory mechanisms
neocortex: memory, storage encephalization factor: neocortex in proportion to entire brain. humans have the highest, are the most complex creatures in terms of thinking, memory, learning |
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rene descartes likened the human body and human behavior to a machine. humans were capable of responding in a variety of stereotypical ways to environmental input. further, human behavior was modulated by a non-material soul. if descartes were alive today, how might he characterize human behavior?
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human behavior is modulated not by a non-material entity but by complex systems that interact with one another; in this way, humans are, in a sense, machines, but not in the way descartes believed. there are some general, universal responses, but descartes presented a very oversimplified version of the human body.
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what mechanisms limit the range of environmental information to which we are sensitive? what does the brain do with that information to generate our knowledge of the world? how is the process different if we are to act on or store the information?
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adaptation, habituation decrease responses to some parts of the environment. from an evolutionary standpoint, this is because these stimuli are not seen as threats, so body focuses on other aspects of environment
we cannot remember everything; information goes through different processes depending on if it is to be stored long-term or just referenced briefly |
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how much of what we know about how the brain works is limited by the technology we have available to ask the question?
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although we have advanced greatly in terms of technology, beginning with the microscope, we are still very limited in terms of what we can see and understand about the brain's activity. imaging techniques are helpful but still fall short; use of animals is controversial and does not always provide conclusions that correlate to the human systems
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how does information about disorders of the nervous system and their treatment help us to understand how the brain works?
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by studying when things go wrong, we can discern mechanisms for certain behaviors and learn from these abnormalities
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