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432 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Which one of these is not one of the "big ideas" of the course?
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The brain is composed of neurons.
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Frontotemporal dementia, Corticobasal degeneration, Alzheimer's and a growing list of other diseases appear to be caused by
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Genetic mutations
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Not recognizing part of your body as belonging to you is referred to as
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alien hand syndrome
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The neuroaxis refers to the same structures as
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The central nervous system
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Descartes was
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a dualist
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The neuroanatomical term synonymous with "towards the nose" is
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rostral
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The plane of section that divides the body into left and right halves is
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sagittal
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The pane of section that divides the body into top and bottom halves is
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horizontal
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Homo sapiens coexisted with
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neanderthals
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The hypothesis that the psyche is responsible for behavior was expounded by
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Aristotle
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The study of how genetic expression is related to the environment and experience is known as
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epigenetics
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Humans are most closely related to
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chimpanzees
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The radiator hypothesis is a theory relating to
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cooling of the brain by blood flow
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Which one of the following is not correlated with brain size? health, cause of death, age, intelligence, body size
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intelligence
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Motor output signals are sent through layer(s) _______ of the cortex.
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V and VI
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If we are speaking of the brain, "dorsal" means
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toward the top of the skull
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The neuroanatomical direction that means "toward the middle" is
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medial
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The plane of the section the divides structures into front and back is
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coronal or frontal
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In the PNS, sensory nerves enter the spinal cord through the
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dorsal
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The part of the nervous system that rests, restores and rebuilds the body is the
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parasympathetic branch of the ANS
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The outermost of the three meninges is the
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dura mater
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Blood capillaries travel through the space beneath the
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arachnoid layer
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Arachnoid granulations allow the passage of
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cerebral spinal fluid
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A ridge of "up folding" of the cortical surface is called a
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gyrus
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A valley or "down folding" of the cortical surface is called a
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sulcus or fissure
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In most people, the ability for language is found
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in the left hemisphere
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The structure that connects the two cerebral hemispheres is the
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corpus callosum
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The primary motor cortex is found in the
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frontal lobe
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The primary motor cortex is found on the
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pre-central gyrus
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Based on what you've read in the text and listened to in class, the "ghost" or "phantom" limb phenomenon is most probably caused by neurological activity in the
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parietal lobe
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The primary visual cortex is located in the
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occipital lobe
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The primary somtaosensory cortex is located in the
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parietal lobe
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Circuits in the fusiform gyrus are responsible for
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facial recognition
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In capgras delusion, a person
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thinks a familiar person or object has been replaced with an exact duplicate
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Parkinson's disease is caused by a lack of ________ input.
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dopaminergic
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The "starter/stopper" motor for movements is the
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basal ganglia
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The occipital lobe
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back of the brain
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The location of the primary motor cortex
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temporal lobe
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The cerebellum
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bottom of the brain
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The location of facial recognition
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temporal lobe
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The brain region that controls vomiting.
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area postrema
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The brain region that acts as a relay for sensory information coming form the periphery and heading on the primary sensory cortices.
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Thalamus
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the brain region that controls recognition of - and responses to - threatening or fearful stimuli
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amygdala
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The brain region that control autonomic functions such as osmotic balance and reproductive behaviors
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hypothalamus
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In the human brain the basal ganglia, limbic system, and olfactory bulbs are considered part of the...
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telencephalon
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the golgi stain made use of ______ to stain neurons so they could be viewed under a microscope.
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silver nitrate
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The cell's soma
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the part with the nucleus, the head
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The place that acts as an "outlet strip" to allow more places for other neurons to "plug in" to the neuron
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dendrites
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The dendrites
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the long projections
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According to Professor Clark, social position in Europe during the Middle Ages was NOT strongly influenced by which of the following?
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race
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Spartacus was
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White
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Septimus Severus was
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black
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Egyptian tomb paintings are of interest to the discussion we have been having recently because
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there is no relationship between skin color and social position in the paintings
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The first use of the word "race" in English occurred
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Between Columbus' arrival on Hispanola and the American Revolutionin 1776
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The doctrine of discovery
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gave Papal blessing to making slaves of non-Christians and taking their land
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Professor Clark argued that the Jim Crow laws were created because of
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a desire to preserve cheap labor by denying Blacks opportunities to pursue better jobs
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According to Prof. clark, racism is just part of "human nature". T or F
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False
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Blacks have an extra muscle in their legs. T or F
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false
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According to Prof. Clark, BiDil, a drug for heart disease
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was originally prescribed for people of all races, but was reinvented as a "for-Blacks-only" when the original patent was about to expire.
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In the first half of the 20th century, many professional basketball players were
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Jewish
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Skin color, facial features, and hair color and texture are largely genetically determined. T or F
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True
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Polygenic inheritance for skin color means that people with dark skin have alleles that are not found in people with light skin. T or F
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False
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Over two hundred years of race science in the United State has produced a combination of genetic, physiological and anatomical traits that uniquely and conclusively identifies members of all racial groups. T or F
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False
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The reason race is not a biological concept is because race mixing over the last few centuries has diluted the original pure races. T or F
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False
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Physiological (Mechanism/ Causation)
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a behavior is related to brain activity and the reactions that occur there (example: certain chemical reactions allow hormones to influence brain activity)
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Ontogenetic (Development)
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a behavior develops through the influence of genes, nutrition, experience, and other interactions (example: the ability to stop impulses develops from birth to adolescence, showing gradual maturation of the brain's frontal lobe)
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Biological explanations of behavior
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-physiological
-ontogenetic -evolutionary -functional |
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Evolutionary (Phylogeny)
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a behavior or structure relates to its evolutionary history (example: goose bumps are now useless to humans because our arm hair is so short, but the behavior evolved from our ancient ancestors)
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Functional (Adaptation)
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the reason why a behavior or structure evolved as it did; identifies genetic advantage (example: certain animals use camouflage as protection against predators)
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Dualism
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-Descartes
-behavior is controlled by mind and body -mind receives info from the body through the brain -mind directs body through brain |
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Rene Descartes
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-suggested that the mind works though the pineal body (now pineal gland)
-mind instructs the pineal body to direct fluid form the ventricles through nerves and into muscles -fluid expands the muscles, the body moves |
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Monism
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-only one kind of existence
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Genes
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-units of heredity that maintain structural identity from one generation to another
-segments of DNA that encode the synthesis of particular proteins |
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Chromosomes
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-genes are inside chromosomes
-the double-helix structures that hold an organism's entire DNA sequence -like blueprints -contain thousands of gene |
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DNA
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-template for RNA
-capable of replicating and determining the inherited structure of a cell's proteins |
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Translation of RNA
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-structural proteins or enzymes
-DNA uncoils to expose a gene -one strand of the gene serves as a template for transcribing a molecule of mRNA -mRNA leaves the nucleus and comes in contact with ribosomes in the endoplasmic reticulum -as a ribosome moves along the mRNA, it translates the bases into a specific amino acid chain, which forms the protein |
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Homozygous
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-having two identical alleles for a trait
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Recessive
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-effects only in homozygous condition
-routinely unexpressed allele |
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sex-linked
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-most sex-linked on X chromosome
-recessive gene for red-green color vision deficiency |
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sex-limited
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-genes activated by sex hormones
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autosomal genes
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-contain the genes that contribute most to our physical appearance and behavioral functions
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X chromosome
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-genes for 1500 proteins
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Y chromosome
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-genes for only 27 proteins
-some sites influence genes on other chromosomes |
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Monozygotic
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-from one egg
-identical twins |
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Dizygotic
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-from two eggs
-fraternal twins |
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Adopted children
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-resemblance to biological parents suggest high heritability
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A notochord is
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a longitudinal flexible rod in the back
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A person who can display some rudimentary behaviors such as smiling or blinking but is otherwise not conscious is described as being
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in a minimally conscious state
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All the nerve processes radiating out beyond the brain and spinal cord as well as all the neuronsoutside the brain and spinal cord constitute the
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peripheral nervous system
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Dunbar proposed that group sizes of about _____ tend to be correlated with increased brain size in primates.
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150
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Homo sapiens coexisted with
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Neanderthals
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Humans are most closely related to
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chimpanzees
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Humans, monkeys, Neanderthals, and chimpanzees all belong to the same
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order
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Insects have
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enough ganglia to be called a brain
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Modern humans appeared approximately
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200,000 years ago
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More advanced nervous systems often have similar structures on the left and right sides (e.g., theleft and right hemispheres of the brain). This concept is known as
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bilateral symmetry
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Of the 100,000 people in the United States who may become comatose in a given year, how manyrecover consciousness?
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20 percent
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Other than humans, which chordate has the largest forebrain?
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birds
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Our small face, vaulted cranium, upright mobility, and distribution of hair are features that link us with juvenile chimps. This illustrates
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neoteny
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Potts proposed that climate change may have placed pressure on apes to adapt to their environment.Specifically, he proposed that apes that lived in _____ climates may have begun to walk upright.
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drier
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The _____ is a nonmaterial entity that is responsible for intelligence, attention, awareness, and consciousness.
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mind
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The brain uses ____ of the body’s oxygen and _____ of the body’s glucose.
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25 percent; 70 percent
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The correct order of the evolution of nervous systems from simple to complex is
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nerve net, segmentation, ganglia, spinal cord, brain
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The first primate to walk upright similar to humans was
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Australopithecus
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The human spinal cord is a great example of the concept of
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segmentation
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The notion that all behavior can be explained by the workings of the brain is commonly referred to as
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materialism
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The notion that the mind resides in the pineal body comes from
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Descartes
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The notion that the movements we make and the movements we perceive in others are central to communication with one another is called the theory of
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embodied language
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The oldest fossils that have been identified as human are approximately
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2 million years old
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The postulation that we make subliminal movements of our larynx and muscles when we imaginewas expounded by
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Edmond Jacobson
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The study of how genetic expression is related to the environment and experience is known as
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epigenetics
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Vegetation eaters have
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smaller brains than fruit eaters
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Which of the following is a conclusion that is necessitated by materialism?
Because all animal species are related, their brains must also be related. Because all animal species are related, their behavior must also be related. The brains of complex organisms like humans evolved from the brains of simpler organisms. All of the answers are correct. |
All of the answers are correct.
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Which of the following is not correlated with brain size?
health cause of death age intelligence |
intelligence
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Which of the following statements is most accurate?
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Nonhuman animals have mostly inherited behavior and are little influenced by learning.
Humans share many inherited behaviors but are mostly influenced by learning. Unlike nonhuman animals, humans share very few inherited behaviors and are mostlyinfluenced by learning. Unlike nonhuman animals, humans’ behavior is totally learned. Humans share many inherited behaviors but are mostly influenced by learning. |
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“Behavior consists of patterns in time” is a definition of behavior expounded by
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Edmond Jacobson
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A hemorrhagic stoke is caused by
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a ruptured blood vessel
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Awaking from sleep is a function of
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the reticular formation
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Cortical regions
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have different specific chemical characteristics
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Fiorito and Scotto (1992) attempted to train an octopus to associate a red ball with a reward and a white ball with a mild electric shock. Results of this study demonstrated that
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the octopus quickly learned to distinguish between the two colored balls, and another octopus was able to learn the same association though observation
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If a tree falls in the forest, does it make a sound if no one is present?
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No, because sound is a fabrication of your brain
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In the human brain the basal ganglia, limbic system, and olfactory bulbs are considered part of the
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telencephalon
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In the human brain the mesencephalon contains:
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tectum and tegmentum
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Ipsilateral is to contralateral as:
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same is to opposite.
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Ischemic stroke is caused by:
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a clot
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Language is usually localized in:
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the left hemisphere.
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Motor output signals are sent through layer(s) _____ of the cortex.
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V and VI
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Parkinson's disease and Tourette's syndrome are neurological diseases associated with the:
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basal ganglia
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Rostral is to caudal as:
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anterior is to posterior
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Sensory inputs are transmitted through layer(s) ______ of the cortex.
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IV
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The _____ nervous system works to help us "rest and digest," whereas the _____ nervous system helps initiate fight-or-flight responses.
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parasympathetic; sympathetic
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The basal ganglia primarily control:
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voluntary movement.
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The functions of the temporal lobes are mainly:
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hearing, language, and music.
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The hippocampus and the amygdala are part of:
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the limbic system
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The hippocampus and the cingulate cortex have been implicated in;
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memory
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The hypothalamus is not primarily involved in:
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sensory input
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The lateral geniculate nucleus deals with:
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vision
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The law of Bell and Magendie states:
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the dorsal spinal cord is sensory and the ventral is motor.
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The left hemisphere primarily controls functions on the _____ side of the body.
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contralateral
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The primary function of the thalamus is:
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transmission of sensory inputs to the cortex.
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The thalamus and hypothalamus are considered part of the:
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diencephalon
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The vagus, facial, and oculomotor nerves are the primary component of:
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the parasympathetic nervous system.
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There are _____ pairs of cranial nerves.
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12
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Tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) is effective for treating:
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ischemic stroke.
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Which of the following is not part of the forebrain?
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the tectum
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______ refers to the nervous system's ability to change and adapt to compensate for injury.
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Neuroplasticity
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Based on their observations of stained neurons, Golgi put forward the ______ hypothesis, whereas Cajal proposed the ______ hypothesis.
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nerve net; neuron
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Because the gene that leads to Huntington’s disease is dominant, a child who has one parent with Huntington’s disease has a _____ chance of developing the disorder.
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50%
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Chris has been feeling very ill lately. He has had a severe headache for a week now and has been vomiting, has had trouble concentrating, and has started losing some of his vision. This morning he had a seizure. You tell Chris he should go to the hospital immediately because he probably has:
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a brain tumor
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Greg accidentally cuts his fingertip with a knife. The next day he notices that his fingertip seems numb to the touch. Greg is very concerned about this, but you tell him not to worry because:
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nerves in the PNS regenerate thanks to Schwann cells.
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Melissa, a 23-year-old female living in Alaska, has been having tingling sensations in her right arm and leg for a few weeks. Today when she woke up she realized that she could barely move her right arm. She had a similar set of symptoms a couple of years ago, but they went away, so she thought everything was fine. Your advice to Melissa is to go to the doctor because:
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she may have multiple sclerosis.
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The notion that two individuals with the exact same genes could end up developing differently is explained by:
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phenotypic plasticity.
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Which of the following is not one of the ways in which epigenetic mechanisms can influence the expression of a particular gene?
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ribosome modification
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______ is a term that means having two different alleles for the same trait.
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Heterozygous
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A chain of amino acids forms a:
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protein
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A child who has seizures, blindness, and degenerating motor and mental ability and who dies at an early age most likely has:
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Tay-Sachs disease.
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According to the text, which of the following statements is correct?
about glial cells and neurons cells |
Both some new neurons and many new glial cells are formed throughout life.
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Astroglia are not associated with:
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removal of dead tissue
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Brain tumors often result from the unregulated growth of:
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glial cells
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Golgi bodies package ______ and ship them to other parts of the neuron via ______.
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proteins; microtubules.
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Hydrocephalus is usually caused by blockage at:
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the fourth ventricle
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In ______, an allele’s own trait and that of the other allele in the gene pair are expressed completely.
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codominance
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In the central nervous system there are approximately:
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100 billion neurons
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Membranes of a cell are made of special molecules called:
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phospholipids
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Microglia originate in:
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the blood
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Multiple sclerosis symptoms are caused by:
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loss of myelin on axons.
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Neurons
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have only one axon
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Proteins are assembled in:
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the endoplasmic reticulum
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Since the mutation that leads to Tay-Sachs disease is recessive, the probability that a child of two parents who both carry the recessive Tay-Sachs allele will later develop Tay-Sachs disease is:
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25%
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The Golgi stain made use of ______ to stain neurons so they could be viewed under a microscope.
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silver nitrate
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The blood-brain barrier is made up of ___ attached to neurons and blood vessels.
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astrocytes
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The cell membrane is important because:
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it controls the amount of water in the cell and regulates the concentration of salts on two sides of the membrane.
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The gene that is most common in a population is called a:
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wild-type gene
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The place where protein packages are wrapped and shipped in a cell is called:
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golgi body
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The simplest neuron is a(n):
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bipolar neuron
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Which glial cells operate as part of the brain's immune system?
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microglia
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Which of the following glial cells are responsible for producing cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?
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ependymal cells
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______ are known for having the largest cell bodies and the longest axons.
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motor neurons
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______ is a structure that gathers, stores, and releases energy.
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the mitochondrion
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Heterozygous
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-having two different alleles for the same trait
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Dominant
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-routinely expressed as a trait
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cerebrum (forebrain)
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-major structure of the forebrain that consists of two virtually identical hemispheres
-conscious behavior |
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brainstem
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-central structure of the brain responsible for most unconscious behavior
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cerebellum
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-major structure of brainstem
-specialized for coordinating and learning skilled movements |
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neuron
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-specialized nerve cell engaged in information processing
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spinal cord
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-part of CNS
-provides most of the connections between the brain and rest of body |
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CNS
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-brain and spinal cord that together mediate behavior
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PNS
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-all the neurons in the body located outside the brain and spinal cord
-provides sensory and motor connections to and from the CNS |
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embodied language
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-hypothesis that the movements we make and the movements we perceive in others are central to communication with others
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psyche
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-an entity once proposed to be the source of human behavior
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mind
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-proposed nonmaterial entity responsible for intelligence, attention, awareness, and consciousness
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mentalism
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-explanation of behavior as a function of the nonmaterial mind
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dualism
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-philosophical position that holds that both a nonmaterial mind and material body contribute to behavior
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materialism
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-behavior can be explained as a function of the brain and the rest of the nervous system without explanatory recourse to the mind
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species
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-group of organisms that can interbreed
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phenotype
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-individual characteristics that can be seen or measured
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genotype
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-particular genetic makeup of an individual
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epigenetics
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-differences in gene expression related to environment and experience
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Minimally Conscious State (MCS)
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-condition in which a person can display some rudimentary behaviors, such as smiling or uttering a few words, but otherwise is not conscious
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Traumatic Brain Injury (TBI)
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-wound to the brain that results from a blow to the head
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Persistent Vegetative State (PVS)
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-condition in which a person is alive but unable to communicate or to function independently at even the most basic level
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Clinical trial
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-consensual experiment directed toward developing a treatment
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Deep brain stimulation (DBS)
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-neurosurgery in which electrodes implanted in the brain stimulate a targeted area with a low-voltage electrical current to facilitate behavior
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Common ancestor
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-fore bearer from which two or more lineages or family groups arise and so is ancestral to both groups
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nerve net
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-simple nervous system that has no brain or spinal cord but consists of neurons that receive sensory information and connect directly to other neurons that move muscles
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bilateral symmetry
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-body plan in which organs or parts present on both sides of the body are mirror images in appearance. ex. hands are bilaterally symmetrical whereas the heart is not
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segmentation
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-division into a number of parts that are similar; refers to the idea that many animals, including vertebrates, are composed of similarly organized body segments
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ganglia
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-collection of nerve cells that function somewhat like a brain
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chordate
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-animal that has both a brain and a spinal cord
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cladogram
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-phylogenetic tree that branches repeatedly, suggesting a taxonomy of organisms based on the time sequence in which evolutionary branches arise
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hominid
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-general term referring to primates that walk upright, including all forms of humans, living and extinct
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Encephalization quotient (EQ)
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-Jerison's quantitative measure of brain size obtained from the ratio of actual brain size to expected brain size, according to the principle of proper mass, for an animal of a particular body size
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apraxia
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-difficulty in movements
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aphasia
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-verbal problems
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radiator hypothesis
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-idea that selection for improved brain cooling through increased blood circulation in the brains of early hominids enabled the brain to grow larger
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neoteny
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-process in which maturation is delayed and so an adult retains infant characteristics; ideas derived from the observation that newly evolved species resemble the young of their common ancestors
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species-typical behavior
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-behavior that is characteristic of all members of a species
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culture
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-learned behaviors that are passed on from one generation to the next through teaching and experience
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What is the brain's primary function?
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produce behavior or movement
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stimulation
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the brain needs stimulation in order to orient and direct the body to produce an appropriate response
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perception
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subjective experiences of reality
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brain is plastic
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neural tissue has the capacity to adapt to the world by changing how its functions are organized; connections among neurons in a given functional system are constantly changing in response to experience
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neuroplasticity
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the nervous system's potential for physical or chemical change that enhances its adaptability to environmental change and its ability to compensate for injury; basis for change in the nervous system
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phenotypic plasticity
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an individual's capacity to develop into more than one phenotype; an individual's genotype interacts with the environment to elicit a specific phenotype from a large genetic repertoire of possibilities
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somatic nervous system
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part of the PNS that includes the cranial and spinal nerves to and from the muscles, joints, and skin that produce movement, transmit incoming sensory input, and inform the CNS about the position and movement of body parts
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autonomic nervous system
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part of the PNS that regulates the functioning of internal organs and glands
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afferent
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-conducting toward a central nervous system structure
-toward |
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efferent
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-conducting away from a central nervous system structure
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meninges
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-three layers of protective tissue that encase the brain and spinal cord
-dura mater, arachnoid, and pia mater |
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cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
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-clear solution of NaCl that fills the ventricles inside the brain and circulates around the brain and spinal cord beneath the arachnoid layer in the subarachnoid space
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cerebral cortex
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-thin, heavily folded film of nerve tissue composed of neurons that is the outer layer of the forebrain
-neocortex |
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temporal lobe
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-part of the cerebral cortex that functions in connection with hearing, language, and musical abilities
-lies below the lateral fissure -beneath temporal lobe |
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frontal lobe
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-"executive" functions
-decision making -lies anterior to the central sulcus |
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parietal lobe
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-direct movements toward a goal or to perform a task
-posterior to the central sulcus |
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occipital lobe
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-visual processes
-back of the brain |
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stroke
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-sudden appearance of neurological symptoms as a result of severely interrupted blood flow
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gray matter
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-areas of the nervous system composed of cell bodies and capillary blood vessels that function to either collect and modify info or to support this activity
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white matter
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-rich in fat-sheathed neural axons that form the connections between brain cells
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ventricle
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-one of four cavities in brain
-contain CSF -cushions brain |
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corpus callosum
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-band of white matter containing 200 million nerve fibers
-connects 2 hemispheres -provide a route for direct communication between them |
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brainstem
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-central structures of the brain
-hindbrain, midbrain, thalamus, hypothalamus -responsible for most unconscious behavior |
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hindbrain
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-pons, medulla, reticular formation, cerebellum
-coordinate and control most voluntary and involuntary movements |
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reticular formation
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-midbrain area in which nuclei and fiber pathways are mixed
-sleep-wake behavior and behavioral arousal |
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midbrain
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-central part of the brain
-contains neural circuits for hearing and seeing -orients movements |
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tectum
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-roof of midbrain
-sensory processing -visual, auditory and production of orienting movements |
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tegmentum
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-floor of midbrain
-collection of nuclei -movement-related, species-specific, and pain-perception functions |
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orienting movement
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-movement related to sensory inputs
-turning head to see source of sound |
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diencephalon
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-"between brain"
-integrates sensory and motor information on its way to the cerebral cortex |
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basal ganglia
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-subcortical forebrain nuclei that coordinate voluntary movements of the limbs and body
-connected to thalamus and midbrain |
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Parkinson's Disease
|
-disorder of motor system
-loss of dopamine -tremors, muscular rigidity, and a reduction in voluntary movement |
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Tourette's syndrome
|
-disorder of basal ganglia
-tics, involuntary vocalizations |
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limbic system
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-cingulate cortex, amygdala, hippocampus
-motivated behaviors, memory |
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cranial nerve
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-control sensory and motor functions of the head, neck, and internal organs
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vertebrae
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-bones that form spinal column
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dermatome
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-body segment corresponding to a segment of the spinal cord
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Reasons for animal research
|
i. Similar mechanisms of behavior and ease of studying animals
ii. Curiosity about animals iii. clues to human evolution iv. can't experiment on humans |
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Santiago Ramon y Cajal
|
a pioneer of neuroscience
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The structures of an animal cell
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1. membrane
a. Two layers of fat molecules b. proteins c. recognition proteins ii. receptors iii. ion channels 2. nucleus 3. mitochondrion 4. ribosomes 5. endoplasmic reticulum |
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receptor proteins
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-"keyhole"
-protein molecule has a groove Key in a lock Receptor protein = lock Neurotransmitter = key Drugs impersonate as a neurotransmitter Chemical recognition |
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ion channels
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-way through the semipermeable membrane
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Why we need a blood-brain barrier
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1. virus-infected non-neural cells: targeted for destruction
2. virus-infected cells in nervous system: virus particles remain 3. area postrema: monitors blood chemicals that cannot enter other brain areas How the blood-brain barrier works 1. endothelial cells of capillaries 2. small uncharged molecules cross freely 3. fat-soluble molecules 4. active transport system 5. Alzheimer’s disease impairs blood-brain barrier 6. Prevents many medications from entering brain |
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active transport system
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a. moves some chemicals from blood to brain
i. glucose ii. amino acids iii. purines, choline, iron iv. certain vitamins and hormones |
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The nourishment of vertebrate neurons
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i. Dependence on glucose and oxygen
1. due to blood-brain barrier 2. ketones 3. liver: converts carbohydrates, amino acids, and glycerol into glucose ii. Requirement for thiamine (vitamin B1) Deficiency leads to Korsakoff’s syndrome |
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somatosensory cortex
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-
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arcuate nucleus
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-
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paraventricular nucleus
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-
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lateral hypothalamic area
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-
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perifornical area
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-
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multiplier effect
|
-environment magnifies early tendencies
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Phenylketonuria (PKU)
|
a. Inability to metabolize phenylalanine
b. Brain malformations, mental retardation, irritability c. Modified by low phenylalanine diet d. “Heritable” not equal to “unmodifiable” e. Diet difficult to follow |
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How genes affect behavior
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1. Increasing production of a protein
2. Indirect effects 3. Proteins affected by environmental factors |
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Evolution
|
change over generations in frequencies of various genes in a population
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Does evolution mean improvement?
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a. Fitness: number of copies of genes that endure in later generations
b. Current genes evolved because they were fit for previous generations |
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Does evolution benefit individual or species?
|
neither, genes
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axon hillock
|
-juncture of soma and axon where the action potential begins
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myelin sheath
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-an insulating layer that forms around nerves, including those in the brain and spinal cord. It is made up of protein and fatty substances.
-allow impulses to transmit quickly and efficiently along the nerve cells -Makes it more efficient |
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node of ranvier
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-gap in the insulating sheath (myelin) on the axon of certain neurons that serves to facilitate the rapid conduction of nerve impulses
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presynaptic terminal
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end bulb = axon terminal = synaptic button
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interneuron
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-association neuron interposed between a sensory neuron and a motor neuron
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astrocytes
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a. encircle several presynaptic terminals
b. take up, store and transfer chemicals c. help synchronize activity of axons d. remove waster e. help control blood flow i. increase blood flow to areas experiencing heightened activity |
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microglia
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-remove wastes, viruses, fungi
Small glial cells Housekeepers of cells Clean up dead, dying, diseased tissue Phagocytes – consume/engulf the dead cells/tissue |
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oligodendrocytes (brain & spinal cord) and Schwann cells (pheriphery)
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a. form myelin sheaths
b. surround and insulate vertebrate axons Few branches Makes multiple pieces of myelin provide support to axons and to produce the Myelin sheath, which insulates axons |
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Radial glia (type of astrocytes)
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-guide migrating neurons, growing axons and dendrites during development
a. following development, most differentiate into neurons |
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motor neuron
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-neuron that carries info form the brain and spinal cord to make muscles contract
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pyramidal cell
|
-distinctive interneuron found in the cerebral cortex
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purkinje cell
|
-distinctive interneuron found in cerebellum
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Sodium-potassium pump
|
Requires energy
Pumps out 3 NA+ Pumps in 2 K+ Which gives an overall negative charge inside |
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Polarization
|
towards the poles
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membrane potential
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-away from a membrane potential of zero
-uneven distribution of ions between the inside and outside of the neuron |
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hyperpolarization
|
-expanded the difference between the inside and outside
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depolarization
|
bring them closer to the middle
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resistance
|
farther down the axon the stimulus becomes less
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voltage-gated
|
opened because the voltage has changed
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chemical-gated
|
open because chemically bonded
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voltage
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ability to do work
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phospholipid bilayer
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o 2 layers
Lipid=fat Inside is lipids, so fat Inside and outside is fluid Cytoplasm is on the inside (intracellular fluid) Extracellular fluid is outside Hydrophilic head Love water Attracted to water Hydrophobic tail Middle of the cell “afraid” of water |
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cholesterol
|
-stabilizes cell membranes
-use for steroid hormones |
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recognition protein
|
-has carbohydrate stuck on end of it
-recognize when it is bumped up against another cell |
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Synaptic Transmission
|
o Communication within a neuron is electrical (action potentials, etc.)
o Communication between neurons is chemical (neurotransmitters, neuromodulators, and hormones) |
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Gap junctions (rare)
|
o Action potential goes right through
o Happen very fast |
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Wild type
|
-soluble
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Prion
|
-insoluble
-bad influence -can cause wild types to become prions |
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Osteoarthritis
|
o Amyloid proteins
o inflammation |
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Communication within a neuron is
|
electrical
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Communication between neurons is
|
chemical
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Neurons tend to release
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o Neurotransmitters
• Local o Neuromodulators • Fairly local o Hormones • Systemic |
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Speed of conduction
|
• The speed of conduction along an axon is 40 m/s
• The speed of conduction through a reflex arc is slower and more variable • Delay occurs at synapse |
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Pre-synaptic side
|
o End plate = synaptic button = axon terminal
o 2,000-3,000 of them o Releasing from this side |
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Post-synaptic side
|
o Dendrite
o Soma o Axon o Axon terminal o Chemical |
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Steps in Transmission at a Chemical Synapse
|
1. Action potential arrives at terminal button.
2. Voltage-gated calcium ion channels open and Ca2+ rushes into terminal button. 3. Ca2+ causes synaptic vesicles to release neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft: exocytosis. a. Out of the cell 4. Binding of neurotransmitter to postsynaptic receptors opens ion channels. a. Like a lock and a key 5. Postsynaptic potentials spread passively over dendrites and cell body to axon hillock. a. EPSP’s i. Excitatory post synaptic potentials b. IPSP’s i. Inhibitory post synaptic potentials 6. Enzyme in cleft breaks down excess transmitter. a. Acetlycholine ACh = neurotransimmter b. Striated muscles c. Acetylcholinesterase =enzyme that cuts neurotransmitter in half 7. Reuptake takes transmitter back into synaptic button. a. Most synaptic transmitters have their synapses stopped by reuptake 8. Transmitter binds to autoreceptor, which slows and stops release of more neurotransmitter. |
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Preliminary Steps at a Chemical Synapse
|
A. Preliminaries: neurotransmitters,
vesicles are synthesized in soma. a. How to make the stuff that is released B. Preliminaries: neurotransmitters placed in vesicles. a. Fill synaptic vessels C. Preliminaries: vesicles transported to synaptic buttons. D. Preliminaries: vesicles docked on presynaptic membrane. a. Attach them to the presynaptic membrane |
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Ionotropic
|
o Neurotransmitter (n.t.) binds to receptor and immediately opens ion channel.
o Fast: less than 1 msec after n.t. binds Chemical events at the synapse - embedded membrane protein that acts as a binding site for a neurotransmitter and a pore that regulates ion flow to directly and rapidly change membrane voltage |
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Metabotropic
|
o Metabotropic effects occur when neurotransmitters attach to a receptor and initiates a sequence of slower and longer lasting metabolic reactions
Chemical events at the synapse -embedded membrane protein, with a binding site for a neurotransmitter but no pore, linked to a G protein that can affect other receptors or act with second messengers to affect other cellular processes |
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IPSP
|
• Potassium goes out it becomes more negative
• Chloride comes in makes it more negative |
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Neural integration: Spatial summation
|
o Excitatory inputs cause the cell to fire
o Inhibition also plays a role o The cell integrates excitation and inhibition |
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IPSP and EPSP
|
can cancel each other out
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Each EPSP is getting you closer to
|
the excitation threshold
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|
Spatial summation
|
o EPSP and IPSP all happening at the same time
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|
neural integrations
|
Temporal summation and spatial summation
|
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Temporal summation
|
o Method of signal transduction between neurons, which determines whether or not an action potential will be triggered by the combined effects of postsynaptic potentials.
o Temporal summation of EPSPs is the additive effect produced by many EPSPs that have been generated at the same synapse by a series of high-frequency action potentials on the presynaptic neuron. o The summing of a series of consecutive EPSPs that were generated by a set of high-frequency action potentials at the same synapse over a short period of time. |
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Spatial Summation
|
o Spatial summation of EPSPs is the additive effect produced by many EPSPs that have been generated at many different synapses on the same postsynaptic neuron at the same time.
o Large depolarization |
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Ligand
|
- molecules that bind to a receptor
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Agonist
|
o Helps
o Reference is to overall synaptic transmission |
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Antagonist
|
o Works against it
o Hurts o Foe o With respect to overall process of synaptic transmission |
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|
L-DOPA
|
• NT: Dopamine
• Stage: NT synthesis • Agonist • Effects: reduces symptoms of Parkinson’s disease • Building block of dopamine 1. Drugs that affect production of neurotransmitter |
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PCPA
|
• NT: Seratonin
• Stage: NT synthesis • Effect: increases lordosis in rats • Antagonist • Serotonin • 5-HT • Made from a single amino acid • PCPA blocks the enzyme, blocks production of tryptophan • Antagonist • Depression 1. Drugs that affect production of neurotransmitter |
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Reserpine
|
• NT: monoamines
o Dopamine and Norepinephrine are named as catecholamine’s (tyrosine) o Serotonin is name Tryptophan o (These last two bullets are the monoamines) • Stage: storage of NT in synaptic vesicles • Effect: works by blocking the transporters in the membrane that pump monoamines into vesicles so that the neurotransmitter remains in the terminal button where it is destroyed by MAO o Makes synaptic vessels leaky • Transporters inhibited by reserpine and cannot reload synaptic vessels with the protein 4. Drugs that affect storage of neurotransmitters |
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Black widow spider venom
|
o NT: Acetylcholine
o Stage: NT release o Agonist • Helping the process of synaptic transmission o Effect: massive release of all ACh synaptic vesicles causes muscle tetanus 5. Drugs that affect release of neurotransmitters |
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Botox
|
o NT: Acetylcholine
o Stage: NT release o Antagonist o Effect: prevents release of ACh synaptic vesicles by attacking snare proteins; muscles relax, wrinkles ease 5. Drugs that affect release of neurotransmitters |
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Nicotine
|
• NT: Acetylchonline
• Stage: binds to postsynaptic receptors • Agonist • Effects: increases heart rate (directly by stimulating sympathetic ganglia & indirectly by stimulating adrenals to release epinephrine), raises blood pressure • Drug that binds to postsynaptic receptor takes the place of the neurotransmitter |
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LSD
|
• Lysergic Acid Diethylamide
• Psilocybin - mushrooms • NT: Serotonin (5-HT) • Monoamine • Stage: binding to postsynaptic receptors • Agonist • Effects: auditory and visual “hallucinations” Drug that binds to postsynaptic receptor takes the place of the neurotransmitter |
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ETOH (barbiturates)
|
o NT: GABA
o Stage: binding to postsynaptic receptors o Agonist o Effect: Makes GABAA receptor more sensitive to GABA. This leads to CNS depression o Never mix alcohol and barbiturates |
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Apomorphine
|
• NT: Dopamine
• Stage: Binds to and stimulates autoreceptors • Antagonist • Effect: experimental testing as a treatment for erectile dysfunction and Parkinson’s. Used to “treat” homosexuality in early 20th century. Emetic. • Stops the release of neurotransmitters |
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Atropine
|
• NT: Acetylcholine (ACh)
• Stage: binding to postsynaptic receptors • Antagonist • Effect: binds to and blocks muscarinic ACh receptors, causes pupils of the eye to dilate. • Side effects: tachycardia, dry mouth (decreased secretions), constipation (relaxing of smooth muscle) • Extract from a plant • Drugs that bind to postsynaptic receptors (and block them) |
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Cocaine
|
• NT: Norepinephrine & dopamine
• Stage: block reuptake transporters • Agonist • Effect: alertness, energy, sense of well-being. • Focus on presynaptic receptor • Drugs that block reuptake or destruction of neurotransmitters |
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Prozac
|
• NT: Serotonin (5-HT)
• Stage: blocks reuptake??? (but maybe new neuronal growth is real mechanism) o Takes a long time to start working o Ongoing area of controversy • Agonist • Effects: Antidepressant. Social anxiety. OCD, etc. Serotonin Selective Reuptake Inhibitors (SSRIs) |
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Physical Addiction
|
o An adaptive state that manifests itself by intense physical disturbances when the administration of a drug is suspended
o Role of the nucleus accumbens (NA) in the physical addiction model o Dopaminergic Pathway: Ventral tegmental Area (VTA) to NA and to prefrontal cortex amygdala and septum |
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Psychological Addiction
|
o “state in which a drug produces a feeling of satisfaction and a psychic drive that requires administration of the drug to produce pleasure or avoid discomfort.”
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|
Heroin Model
|
o Tolerance: decreased sensitivity to a drug form continued use
o Withdrawal symptoms if drug is discontinued |
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|
Tolerance
|
o Decreased sensitivity due to
• Receptor down regulation • Receptors are being lost and remembered • Damage to microfilaments of medial forebrain bundle axons |
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Withdrawal
|
o Symptoms are primarily the opposite of the effects of the drug itself
• Ex. Heroin use: euphoria, constipation, and relaxation • Heroin withdrawal: dysphoria, cramping & diarrhea, agitation |
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|
Reinforcement pathway
|
Ventral Tegmental Area -> MFB -> Nucleus Accumbens
Ventral tegmental Area (VTA) to NA and to prefrontal cortex amygdala and septum |
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|
Homeostasis
|
• Try to regulate things within certain limits
• Homeostatic Mechanisms • Temperature • Osmotic pressure • Blood sugar • Blood pressure • Brain chemistry • And many more |
|
|
Homeostatic responses
|
CS + US (drug) " UR homeostatic response
• Unconditioned response: release of drug • Antagonists by brain to “restore order” o After conditioning: CS produces homeostatic response |
|
|
Dodes Model
|
o Situation where direct action is not possible
o Feeling of Helplessness. (Purpose of addiction) o Rage at feeling helpless. (Drive behind addiction). o Displacement activity. (Addictive behavior). |
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|
Underlying Unity Of Addictions
|
o Focus on specific addictive behavior misplaced.
o Someone who smokes, quits and then starts drinking has not quit anything according to Dodes. They have just changed the symptom of the underlying addiction. |
|
|
ii. What the Vietnam vet experience shows
|
Many used heroin and/or narcotics.
95% of those who became addicted in Vietnam stopped after returning to US. Unheard of rate. Addiction is a human problem that resides in people, not in the drug or in the drug’s capacity to produce physical effects. |
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|
Septimius Severus
|
o Was born in Africa
o Emperor of Rome |
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|
Asexual reproduction
|
o Parent divides
o Offspring will be genetic copies of the parent |
|
|
Fission
|
o occurs when a cell (or body, population, or species) divides into two or more parts and the regeneration of those parts into separate cells
|
|
|
Parthenogenesis
|
o Parthenos = virgin
o Genesis = origin is a form of asexual reproduction in which growth and development of embryos occur without fertilization ex. turkeys |
|
|
Hermaphrodism - Simultaneous
|
• Individuals produce eggs and sperm at the same time
• Each individual is giving the other individual sperm • Both are giving the other their sperm • Mating involves exchanging sperm • Ex. Snails, worms |
|
|
Hermaphrodism - Sequential
|
• Protoandrous (male first)
• Protogynous (female first) |
|
|
Sex
|
• Genetics
• Anatomy • Physiology o Genetic o Gonads • Organs in the body that produce gametes (sperm & egg) • Testes for male • Ovaries for female o Internal reproductive organs o Genitalia o SSC o Brain? |
|
|
Gender
|
• Gender identity
• Gender roles • Dress & appearance • Act • Occupations |
|
|
Social construction
|
-the meanings and beliefs that individuals, insti-tutions, and society attribute to a given category, label or signifier
o Arbitrary o Aren’t fixed |
|
|
Natural Kind
|
-a set of items based on common essential properties, hence a “natural” as opposed to an arbitrary grouping
|
|
|
False Binaries
|
o We superimpose categories on continuous variation
o We think of the categories as mutually exclusive (one or the other) o We think of the categories as all encompassing (can’t be neither) o We tend to emphasize differences between categories and minimize differences within categories |
|
|
Gonadal sex
|
• Organs in the body that produce gametes (sperm & egg)
• Testes for male • Ovaries for female |
|
|
Mullerian
|
-o Fimbria
o Fallopian tubes o Uterus o Cervix o Inner portion of Vagina • The Müllerian Ducts are strong and will develop unless suppressed by Müllerian Inhibiting Substance (MIS), a protein. |
|
|
Wolffian
|
• Wolffian ducts
o Epididymis o Vas deferens o Seminal vesicles • 2 inches long • Alkaline fluid • High fructose content • Prostaglandins: fatty acid substances that stimulate muscular contractions in the female reproductive tract • 60% of the total volume of semen • The Wolffian Ducts are weak and will degenerate unless supported by testosterone |
|
|
External genitalia
|
-o Genital tubercle & genital swelling
o Before 15 weeks of gestation, we all have bipotent genital tubercles and genital folds. o Before 15 weeks of gestation, testosterone from the testis begins to masculinize the external genitalia. Absence of testosterone leads to the feminine pattern of development. o In the tissue of the genital tubercle & genital swelling the enzyme 5α-reductase converts testosterone into DHT which masculinizes the external genitalia. DHT is thus the inducer. |
|
|
Totipotent
|
-can become any cell type
|
|
|
Bipotent
|
-can become either of two type
|
|
|
Determined
|
-cells whose developmental fate is set
|
|
|
Inducer
|
-chemical that determines tissue’s fate
|
|
|
SRY-protein
|
o Sex determining region of the Y chromosome
o Protein is the inducer that determines the fate of the gonads (ovaries or testes) |
|
|
Testosterone
|
o Testosterone (Leydig cells)
o Dihydrotestosterone (DHT) o Inhibin (sertoli cells) |
|
|
Mullerian Inhibiting Substance
|
o The Müllerian Ducts are strong and will develop unless suppressed by Müllerian Inhibiting Substance (MIS), a protein
• MIS is an inducer |
|
|
Dihydrotestosterone
|
-DHT, which stands for Dihydrotestosterone (5α-Dihydrotestosterone), is a male sex hormone, an androgen. 5α-reductase, an enzyme, synthesizes DHT in the adrenal glands, hair follicles, testes and prostate
|
|
|
Protoandrous (male first)
|
• When the clown fish is little they are male but then they grow up to be female
|
|
|
Protogynous (female first)
|
-• Born female and at some point in their lifespan change sex to male
• Ex. Wrasse |
|
|
Feudal Mode of Production
|
o King and church split top of triangle
o Merchants = next section o Serfs= last/bottom section |
|
|
Male, Christian, Landowner
|
= importance in feudal society
o If you weren’t all three you did not matter o The color of your skin did not matter |
|
|
Alessandro de Medici
|
o Duke of Florence
o Ruler of Italian city states o Lineage goes back to Africa o Were aware of his skin color, but it did not matter |
|
|
Main concepts
|
• We have evolved different skin colors
• But people didn’t classify them • Now race is a big deal • Ideas are not eternal and always existing • But it evolved overtime and it had to do with economics • Age of discovery o Europeans dispersed and took riches from others • Europe became rich • Cost of labor • Cheapest labor = slavery |
|
|
SUMMARY OF THE EVIDENCE THAT RACE IS NOT BIOLOGICAL
|
• The argument from authority
• The failure of racists to define race • There are no morphological or genetic characteristics (either alleles or haplotypes that consistently classify races) • Most genetic variation is found within racial groups, not between them. (So racial identity is not a measure of genetic similarity) • There is no concordance between genes for skin color and other genes • There hasn’t been enough time for humans to evolve separate races |
|
|
SUMMARY OF PART 1 (from PowerPoint)
|
• Neither our notions of race, nor racism are inherent “human nature.” Rather they
are part of the superstructure that emerges from the base of production relations. • In the societies of ancient Rome, Greece and Egypt slavery existed but it was not tied to “race.” • Multiple lines of evidence suggest that in ancient times and in the middle ages, differences in skin color, etc., were not more salient than differences in height. • What was salient was whether one owned land and was a Christian. • As the feudal mode of production gave way to merchant capitalism a new rationale was needed to justify the exploitation of large numbers of people of color: their enslavement and the theft of their land and natural resources. • As merchant capitalism gave way to industrial capitalism, racism served to guarantee cheap labor. • Racism did not emerge at once as a fully formed ideology, but developed over three centuries. |
|
|
Acetylocholine (ACh)
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-first neurotransmitter discovered in the peripheral and central nervous systems; activates skeletal muscles in the somatic nervous system and may excite or inhibit internal organs in the autonomic system
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Epinephrine (EP, or adrenaline)
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-chemical messenger that acts as a hormone to mobilize the body for fight or flight during times of stress and as a neurotransmitter in the central nervous system
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Norepinephrine
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-neurotransmitter found in the brain and in the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system; accelerates heart rate in mammals
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neurotransmitter
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chemical released by a neuron onto a target with an excitatory or inhibitory effect
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dopamine
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amine neurotransmitter that plays a role in coordinating movement, in attention and learning, and in behaviors that are reinforcing
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reuptake
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deactivation of a neurotransmitter when membrane transporter proteins bring the transmitter back into the presynaptic axon terminal for subsequent reuse
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serotonin
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amine neurotransmitter that plays a role in regulating mood and aggression, appetite and arousal, the perception of pain, and respiration
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GABA
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amino acid neurotransmitter that that inhibits neurons
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True or False. Animals reproduce sexually, plants reproduce asexually.
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False
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True or False. In animals, the XY genotype defines a male.
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False
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Sequential hermaphrodism is shown by
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clown fish
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Groupers as well as Caribbean wrasse exhibit
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protogynous hermaphrodism
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A cell which can develop into any cell in the body is referred to as
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totipotent
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When a sperm enters an ovum the result is a fertilized egg called a zygote. A zygote is
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totipotent
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The primordial (undifferentiated) gonads are
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bipotent
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In humans the gonads are
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the testes and ovaries
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The inducer for the gonads is
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SRY-protein
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The end of the sensitive phase for the determination of the gonads is
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6 weeks after conception
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Gender is almost universally regarded as a
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social construction
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Which of the following does not belong with the others in terms of its embryological tissue of origin? ovary, a testis, the uterus
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the uterus
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The end of the sensitive phase for the determination of the Mullerian and Wolffian systems is
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8 weeks after conception
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From an evolutionary perspective, the best time to reproduce sexually is
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when the environment is fluctuating and uncertain
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The medical model of addiction focuses on a pathway from the Ventral Tegmental Area (VTA) that projects to the
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nucleus accumbens
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The neurotransmitter released by the pathway from the VTA is
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dopamine
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In class we discussed slowing the replacement rate of receptors as part of the cause for
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tolerance
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There is a drug which binds tot he GABA receptor more strongly than ethanol, but which does not cause a conformational change in the receptor when it binds,. This drug should be classified as
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a GABA antagonist
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Atropine binds to
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muscarinic acetylcholine receptors
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Cocaine affects reuptake of
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catecholamines
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Prozac affects ___ for ___ in the short-term (within an hour or two)
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none of the above
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According to the theories of Dr. Lance Dodes, a person who quits smoking and takes up compulsive gambling, and then quits gambling but update his or her Facebook page many times a day has
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not quit anything because of smoking, gambling and Facebook are simply different displacement behaviors driven by the same underlying cause
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MDMA, also known as ecstasy, affects exocytosis and
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reuptake
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Overdoses most frequently occur
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because a classically conditioned response is removed
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Alcohol is an agonist for
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GABA
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black widow spider venom
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exocytosis
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____ is a neurotransmitter that slows down heart rate, whereas _____ speeds it up.
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acetylcholine; norepinephrine
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_____ can also act as neurotransmitters
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Hormones
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The presynaptic side is always
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an axon terminal
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Voltage-gated calcium ion channels that function in neurotransmission are primarily found on the
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presynaptic membrane
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Ultimately Ca2+ serves to aid neural transmission by
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causing the release of neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft
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Which of the following presynaptic events are in correct chronological order?
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action potential reaches axon terminal, calcium ion channels open, exocytosis, diffusion of neurotransmitter
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Bind =ing of neurotransmitter to these receptors slows and stops the release of more neurotransmitter.
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autoreceptors
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Synaptic transmission involving ACh is ended by
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enzymatic degradation
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____ is the deactivation of a neurotransmitter by transporter proteins that bring the transmitter back into the presynaptic side for reuse
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reuptake
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_____ is the process of neurotransmitter deactivation whereby the neurotransmitter simply leaves the synaptic cleft
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diffusion
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Which of the following best characterizes Type I and/or Type II synapses?
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Type I synapses are excitatory and have round synaptic vesicles
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Iontropic receptors consist of
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both a binding site and an ion channel
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Metabotropic receptors consists of
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a binding site
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Acetylcholine is the main neurotransmitter for
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all skeletal motor synapses
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Another term for volts is
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electrical potential between two poles
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In order to measure the voltage across the cell membrane you would normally
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place on electrode on the outer surface of an axons membrane and another inside the axon and measure the difference
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When a substance moves from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration, it is an example of a
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concentration gradient
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The notion that opposites attract is an analogy that best describes
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a voltage gradient
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Channels in the cell membrane are formed by
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protein molecule
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Which of the following is not involved in producing the resting potential?
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calcium ions
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