Basic Neurology, Anatomy, And Physiology; (Mainly For Speech Production)

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Neuron composed of

Back 1

cell body (soma), dendrites, axon, synaptic cleft, terminal button (suction cups)

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nerve

Back 2

A bundle of neurons outside of the central nervous system

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tract

Back 3

A bundle of neurons inside the central nervous system.

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efferent

Back 4

motor neurons (brain to body)

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afferent

Back 5

sensory neuron (body to brain)

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motor unit

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Structure that consists of nerves or neurons and the muscles they innervate.

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gamma loop

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constant electric signal from the brain to muscle and vice versa.

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3 major neurotransmitters

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dopamine, acetylcholine, GABA (Gamma Amino Butyric Acid)

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Gamma motor neuron

Back 9

backup motor neuron to the alpha

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brain is composed of

Back 10

brainstem, cerebellum, subcortical structures (optic thalamus, hypothalamus, limbic system, corpora quadrigemina, globus pallidus, and other basal nerve ganglia), cerebral hemispheres

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peripheral nervous system

Back 11

cranial nerves and spinal nerves

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olfactory C.N.

Back 12

first; sense of smell

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optic C.N.

Back 13

second; vision

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oculomotor C.N.

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third; vision: eyelids, pupil dilation

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trochlear C.N.

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fourth; vision

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trigeminal C.N.

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fifth; face and mouth *

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abducent C.N.

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sixth; vision

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facial C.N.

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seventh; face *

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vestibulocochlear C.N.

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eighth; hearing and balance *

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glossopharyngeal C.N.

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ninth; tongue and pharynx *

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vagus C.N.

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tenth; pharynx and soft palate *

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accessory/spinal C.N.

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eleventh; neck and larynx *

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hypoglossal C.N.

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twelfth; tongue *

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four major divisions of the speech motor system

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final common pathway, direct activation pathway, indirect activation pathway, control circuits

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final common pathway

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AKA Lower Motor Neuron
Includes the Cranial nerves and Spinal nerves
Damage to cranial nerves results in dysarthria
Typically flaccidity
Spinal nerves not important for speech, except for respiration.

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direct activation pathway

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indirect activation pathway

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AKA: Extrapyramidal tract/system
Part of the Upper Motor Neuron along with DAP/pyramidal system
Associated with muscle tone, reflexes, and posture.
Comprised of short tracts that connect to the spinal cord.
Rubrospinal tract
Reticulospinal tract
Vestibulospinal tract
Tectospinal tract

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control circuits

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Composed of the basal ganglia, cerebellum, and thalamus.
Purpose is to refine/filter/edit the thoughts, ideas, and feelings we want to express.

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5 stages of speech production

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Conceptualization
Spatial-temporal planning
Motor planning and programming
Performance/Execution
Feedback

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conceptualization

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Involves widespread cortical activity in the Association Cortex.

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association cortex

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“make sense” of the sensory impulses that have been initially analyzed by the primary cortex

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4 cortical association areas

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temporal (auditory association), frontal (motor association), parietal (sensory association), occipital (visual association).

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conceptualization

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Develop a desire to do something and establishing a purpose for action.
Thoughts
Feelings
Ideas
Involves widespread cortical activity in the Association Cortex.

dementia, confusion, deficits in message content, organization, and tone

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spatial-temporal planning

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Linguistic units:
The contents of a linguistic plan.
An idea and the intention to express it.
Linguistic plan:
Shaping the idea fit semantic, syntactic, and phonologic rules of communication.
Localized in the left hemisphere
Perisylvain cortex along the temporal-parietal lobes (Broca’s Area)
Some input from thalamus and basal ganglia
Damage results in:
Aphasia

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basal ganglia

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Collective Name for three large subcortical structures located near the lateral ventricles
Caudate nucleus
Putamen
Globus pallidus
The Caudate Nucleus and Putamen are known together as the Striatum

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motor planning and programming

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performance/execution

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Activates motoneurons, muscle contractions, and movement.
Once all the plans and programs are in place, the message gets sent out via these tracts/pathways and nerves.
Localized to the:
Direct activation pathway
Indirect activation pathway
Control circuits
Final common pathway
Damage results in:
Dysarthrias

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feedback

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Involves multiple modalities
Primary cortex
Damage results in:
Aphasia

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primary cortex

Back 39

Comprises the parts of the cerebrum that are dedicated to the analysis of a single type of neural input. Individually, these areas are known as the primary auditory cortex, primary visual cortex, primary sensory cortex, and primary motor cortex
Responsible for the initial cortical processing of the auditory, visual, somatosensory (bodily sensation) information.

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Skeletal structures framework (for respiration)

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sternum, 12 pairs of ribs, clavicle, vertebral column, pelvis
provides support and protection for the lungs, heart, and respiratory muscles.

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sternum composed of

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Manubrium:
Provides attachment for clavicle and first rib
Corpus:
Provides attachment for ribs 2-10; some more direct than others.
Xiphoid (ensiform) process

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3 general rib classes

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True ribs: Ribs 1-7; direct attachment to sternum
False ribs: Ribs 8-10; connected to sternum through cartilaginous (chondral) portion
Floating ribs: Ribs 11-12; articulate only with the vertebral column
Provides strength and flexibility

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clavicle

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Commonly known as the collar bone.
Provides a place of connection for accessory muscles of respiration.

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vertebral column

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Sections:
Cervical: C1-C7
Thoracic: T1-T12
Lumbar: L1-L5
Sacral:S1-S5
Coccygeal: fused

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pelvis

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Provides connection for legs and vertebral column
Made up of:
Ilium-supports abdominal muscles
Sacrum
Pubic bone: public symphysis
Ischium

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muscles of respiration

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Diaphragm
Muscles of the rib cage
Known as intercostal muscles:
Located between ribs
External intercostals – Assist during inhalation
Internal intercostals – Assist during exhalation
Abdominal muscles:
Help during forceful exhalation.

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respiration: tissue structures

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boyle's law

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Given a gas of constant temperature, as volume is increased, pressure will decrease.

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air pressure

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Natural law

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air will flow from an area of high pressure to an area of low pressure in order to equalize pressure.

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inhalation during quiet "tidal" breathing

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Accounts for 40% of respiratory cycle (‘time’).
Involuntary.
Mostly diaphragmatic

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inhalation during speech

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Accounts for 10% of respiratory cycle (‘time’).
More voluntary.
Other muscles recruited.

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active expiration

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Use of muscular effort to force air out of the lungs beyond that which is expired in passive expiration.

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passive expiration

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Relaxing of muscles used for inspiration. Driven by torque, elasticity, and gravity.
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quiet expiration

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Accounts for 60% of the respiratory cycle (‘time’).
Passive movement.

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expiration for speech

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Accounts for 90% of the respiratory cycle (‘time’).
Active movement.
Involves muscles of inspiration

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tidal volume (TV)

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volume of air exchanged in one cycle of respiration

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residual volume (RV)

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volume of air remaining in the lungs after a max exhalation

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Inspiratory Reserve volume (IRV)

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Volume of air that can be inhaled after a tidal inspiration.

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expiratory reserve volume

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volume of air that can be exhaled following a passive tidal expiration

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vital capacity (vc)

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volume of air that can be inhaled following a max exhalation. vc=irv+tv+erv

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total lung capacity (tlc)

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sum of everything.

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functional residual capacity

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Amount of air in the lungs and airways at the end of a normal quiet exhalation. (FRC = ERV + RV)

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Resting Expiratory Level

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The state of equilibrium in the respiratory system.
Occurs when the pressure in the alveoli equals atmospheric pressure.
Happens at the end of a quiet exhalation.
REL is also known as end-expiratory level.

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relaxation pressure curve

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38% of vital capacity represents equilibrium or zero pressure.

Life Breathing: 10% VC
Normal Speech Breathing: 20-25% VC
Loud Speech Breathing: 40%

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manometer

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measures air pressure
Unit of measure: cm H2O or mmHg

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air pressures necessary for speech include

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Alveolar pressure (lungs)
Subglottic pressure (vocal folds)
Intra-oral pressure (mouth)

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normal means during sustained phonation ("pulling out a vowel") (airflow)

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Men: 112mL/s
Women: 94mL/s
Boys: 96mL/s
Girls: 72mL/s

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pneumotachograph

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measures airflow
Airflow for speech is related to the resistance to flow exerted by the valving action of the larynx and articulators.

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peripheral nervous system

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cranial nerves and spinal nerves

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spinal nerves

Back 71

important for respiration