Banguddong

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ecology

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study of interaction between abiotic and biotic components

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"scientific"

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hypothetico-deductive approach using observations, mathematical models, and experiments to test hypothesis

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"environment"

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includes abiotic and biotic components

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"interactions"

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ecological time translates into evolutionary time

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Charles Darwin

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one of the first ecologists

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descriptive to experimental

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Simberloff and Wilson eliminate all the insects at Florida Keys to study recolonization

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organismal ecology

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studies the behavioral, physiological, and morphological ways in which organisms adapt to abiotic challenges

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population

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studies size and composition of a group of the same species living in a particular area

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community

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studies interactions, such as predation, competition, and disease, between all the organisms in particular area

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ecosystem

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studies energy flow, chemical cyclings, and all the abiotic and biotic factors in a certain area

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ecologists face challenges because...

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the complexity of questions, diversity of subjects, expanses of time and space, and multidisciplinary nature

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the first most significant interaction on earth occurred when...

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photosynthetic bacteria began utilizaing sunlight for energy and gave off oxygen

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Silent Spring

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written by Rachel Carson in 1962, it pointed out the widespread use of pesticides such as DDT

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environmental concerns

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acid precipitation, local famine aggravated by land misuses, overpopulation, toxic wastes, species extinction, and habitat destruction

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biosphere

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global ecosystem

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temperature

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affect biological or physiological processes of organisms

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water

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water balance and affect intracellular osmolarity for aquatic organisms and dessication for land organisms

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sunlight

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provides energy for all ecosystems and affects the development and behavior of plants and animals that are sensitive to photoperiod

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most photosynthesis in aquatic environments occurs where?

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near the surface because every meter of water depth absorbs half of light

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photoperiod

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relative lengths of daytime and nighttime, an indicator for cueing seasonal events, such as flowering or migration

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wind

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increases heat and water loss due to evaporation, transpiration, and convection (wind-chill factor)

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rocks and soil

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limit the distribution of plants, contributes to the patchiness, and affects water chemistry

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periodic disturbances

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fires, hurricanes, tornadoes, and volcanic eruptions allow recolonization

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climate

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temperatures, water, light, and wind

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biome

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major types of ecosystems

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which biome accounts for the largest part of the biosphere?

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aquatic

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freshwater biomes

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less than 1% salt concentration

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marine biomes

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3% salt concentration

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ocean's 3 enormous impact on the biosphere

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1. evaporation of seawater provides most of rainfall
2. temperatures have a major effect on climate and wind patters
3. marine algae consume huge amounts of carbon dioxide

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turnover

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brings oxygenated water from the surface of lakes to the bottom and nutrient rich water from the bottom to the surface in both spring and autumn

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december solstice

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northern hemisphere tilts away from the sun, day length reduced

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june solstice

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northern hemisphere tilts toward sun, day length increased

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march and september equinox

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equator faces sun directly with 12 hour daylight

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tropics

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lie between 23.5 north and south latitudes, receive sunlight directly, experience the greatest annual input and the least seasonal variation

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high temperatures, intense sunshine, lush vegetation, and ample rainfall are characteristic of what?

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tropical forests and coral reefs

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photic zone

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sufficient light for photosynthesis

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aphotic zone

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little light penetrates

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water temperature stratified during which seasons?

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summer and winter

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thermocline

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a narrow stratum of rapid temperature change, separates warm upper layer from cold deeper waters

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benthic zone

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bottom of all aquatic biomes made up of sand and organic and inorganic sediments, occupied by benthos

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benthos

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organisms in benthic zone, feed on detritus

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detritus

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dead organic matter rains down from the productive surface waters of the photic zone

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what are two general categories of freshwater biomes?

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standing bodies (lakes and ponds) and moving types (rivers and streams)

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in aquatic biome, communities of plants and animals are distributed according to what 2 factors?

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depth and distance

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littoral zone

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shallow and close to shore where floating aquatic plants flourish

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limnetic zone

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farther from shore occupied by phytoplankton consisting of algae and cyanobacteria

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profundal zone

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deep aphotic region where detritus sink down

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microbes in profundal and benthic zones...

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use oxygen for cellular respiration as they decompose detritus

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oligotrophic

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deep and nutrient poor, phytoplankton in the limnetic zone not productive

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eutrophic

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shallow and nutrient rich, phytoplankton are very productive, waters are murky

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mesotrophic

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moderate amount of nutrients and phytoplankton productivity, between the oligotrophic and eutrophic extremes

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runoff from fertilized lawns and agricultural fields and the dumping of wastes do what to the lakes?

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"cultural eutrophication", enrich lakes with excessive amounts of nitrogen and phosphorus with algae population explosion and depletion of oxygen supplies

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littoral community consist of...

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attached algae, grazing snails, arthropods, fishes, and amphibians

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photosynthesis occurs which lake zone?

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limnetic zone

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deep waters are unsuitable for most organisms because...

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decomposers deplete the oxygen supply in the profundal zone

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biannual turnover

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brings oxygen to the profundal zone and nutrients to the limnetic zone

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clear water and oxygen rich supporting diverse populations of fish and invertebrates

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oligotrophic lakes

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high organic content in the benthos leading to high decomposition rates and low oxygen supplies

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eutrophic lakes

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rivers and streams

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nutrient content determined by the terrain and vegetation nearby, fallen leaves add amounts of organic matter, weathering of rocks increase the concentration of inorganic nutrients, the turbulent flow oxygenates the water

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wetland

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area covered with water that supports aquatic plants, range from periodically flooded regions to soil that is permanently saturated during the growing season

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types of wetlands

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marshes, swamps, bogs, pools

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hydrophytes ("water plants")

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floating pond lilies, emergent cattails, sedges, tamarack, and black spruce grow in water or in soil that is periodically anaerobic due to the presence of water

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basin wetlands

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develop in shallow basins, ranging from upland depressions to filled-in lakes

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riverine wetlands

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develop along shallow and periodically flooded banks of rivers and streams

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fringe wetlands

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occur along the coasts of large lakes and seas where water flows back and forth because of rising lake levels or tidal actions

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3 topographic wetlands

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basin, riverine, and fringe wetlands

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estuary

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area where a freshwater stream or river merges with the ocean, bordered by coastal wetlands called mudflats and saltmarshes

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major producers in esturaries are...

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saltmarsh grasses, algae, and phytoplankton

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importance of wetlands

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rich biome, diverse community of invertebrates supporting variety of birds, provide water-storage basins that reduce the intensity of flooding, improve water quality by filtering pollutants

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importance of estuary

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supports worms, oysters, crabs, and fish species that human consume, breeding and migration ground

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phytoplankton, zooplankton, and many fish species occur in which zone?

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photic

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most of the ocean volume is virtually devoid of what?

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light because water absorbs light well and the ocean is deep

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intertidal zone

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the zone where land meets water

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neritic zone

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beyond intertidal zone, the shallow regions over the continental shelves

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oceanic zone

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past the continental shelf, reach great depths

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with twice-daily cycle of tides, this zone is subject to huge daily variations in the availability of seawater, nutrients, and temperature

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intertidal zone

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rocky intertidal zone

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vertically stratified and organisms have structural adaptations that enable them to attach to the hard substrate

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sandy and mudflat intertidal zone

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wave action moves the particles of mud and sand, animals (worms, clams, crustaceans) bury in sand or mud and feed when tides bring sources of food, crabs and shorebirds scavenge and predate

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coral reefs

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located in the neritic zone, waves renew nutrient supplies and sunlight provides photosynthesis

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the structure of the coral reefs is formed by...

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cnidarians that secrete hard external skeletons made of calcium carbonate

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coral reefs feed on...

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microscopic organisms and particles of organic debris

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dinoflagellate algae

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symbiotic algae living in tissues of coral reefs, increase the rate of calcium carbonate deposition in reefs

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oceanic pelagic biome

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far from shore, low nutrient concentrations, remains of organisms sink below the photic region into benthic zone

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in tropical areas, surface waters are lower in nutrients than the surface waters of temperate oceans because...

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thermal stratification prevents an exchange of nutrients between the surface and the deep

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zooplankton

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protozoans, worms, copepods, krill, and jellies feed on phytoplankton

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pelagic birds

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petrels, terns, and albatrosses catch nektons in the surface waters

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abyssal zone

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deep benthic communities where organisms adapt to cold, water pressure, low nutrients, and absence of light, but oxygen is present

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chemoautotrophic prokaryotes

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food producers in abbysal zone

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terrestrial biomes are distinguished by what factors?

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physical or climactic features and predominant vegetation

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vertical stratification in terrestrial biomes is defined by...

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the shapes and sizes of plants, such as upper canopy, low-tree stratum, shrub understory, ground layer, forest floor, root layer

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permafrost

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permanently frozen stratum in arctic tundra

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ecotone

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separate biome recognized if the area of intergradation is large

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fire is an integral component of which biomes?

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grasslands, savannas, chaparral, and many coniferous forests

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biomes exhibit patchiness due to...

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disturbances, hurricanes create openings, snowfall break branches, dominant plants depend on disturbances

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homeostasis

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the maintenance of a steady-state internal environment in the face of variations in the external environment

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regulators

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use behavioral and physiological mechanisms to achieve homeostasis against fluctuations in temperature, moisture, light intensity, and concentrations of a variety of chemical factors

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conformers

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usually live in stable environments, allow conditions within bodies to vary with external changes

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regulator or conformer? Pacific salmon

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regulator, maintain a constant solute concentration in blood by osmoregulation

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regulator or conformer? spider crabs

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conformer, do not osmoregulate and lose or gain water to conform to the external environment

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few organisms are perfect regulators or conformers. for example...

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pacific salmon osmoregulate but conform to external temperatures

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regulator or conformer? lizard Anolis cristatellus

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both, sometimes the cost of regulation may outweigh the benefits of homeostasis due to long distances

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principle of allocation

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assessing the responses of organisms to their complex environments

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according to the principle of allocation, each organism has a limited amount of energy that can be allocated for...

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obtaining nutrients, escaping from predators, coping with environmental fluctuations, growth, and reproduction

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proximate questions

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concern mechanisms operating in ecological time

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ultimate questions

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concern mechanisms operating in evolutionary time

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tropical forests

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pronounced vertical stratification, closed canopy prevent light penetration, large woody vines grow on fallen trees, epiphytes grow on other trees, rainfall is the cause of lush vegetation, tropical dry forests present in lowland areas with prolonged dry season or scarce rainfall

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savanna

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ants and termites are dominant, fire is an important abiotic component, plants are fire-adapted, grasses during rainy season provides food for animals, grazing mammals migrate during seasonal drought

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desert

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sparse rainfall, cacti and rooted shrubs, CAM photosynthesis of storing water

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chaparral

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shrubs dominate, midlatitude coastal areas with mild and rainy winters and long, hot, dry summers, plants are dependent on periodic fires, fire-resistant roots, some germinate only after fire

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temperate grassland

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seasonal drought, occasional fires, and grazing by mammals prevent establishment of woody shrubs and trees, soil is deep and rich in nutrients

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temperate deciduous forests

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deciduous trees, occur in midlatitudes where there is sufficient moisture to support the growth of large trees, distinct vertical layers, drop leaves before winter, hibernation and migration

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coniferous forests

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cone-bearing trees such as pine, spruce, fir, and hemlock dominate, warm and moist air, dominated by a few tree species, known as taiga, largest terrestrial biome, heavy snowfall, conical shaped trees prevent too much snow from accumulating on branches

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tundra

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permafrost, cold temperatures, high winds cause absence of trees, little rainfall, alpine tundra on high mountaintops

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acclimation

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involves substantial but reversible changes that shift an organism's tolerance curve in the direction of the environmental change