Babbie, Introduction To Social Research

Front 1

Paradigm

Back 1

A model or framework for observation and understanding which shapes both what we see and how we understand it. The conflict paradigm causes us to see social behavior in one way, the interactionist paradigm causes us to see if differently.

Front 2

Macro theory

Back 2

A theory aimed at understanding the big picture of institutions, whole societies and the interactions among societies

Front 3

Micro theory

Back 3

A theory aimed at understanding the social life at the level of individuals and their interactions

Front 4

Interest convergence

Back 4

The thesis that majority group members will only support the interests of minorities when those actions also support the interests of the majority group

Front 5

Critical realism

Back 5

A paradigm that holds that things are real insofar as they produce effects

Front 6

Hypothesis

Back 6

A specified testable expectation about empirical reality that follows from a more general proposal; more generally, an expectation about the nature of things derived from a theory. It is a statement of something that ought to be observed in the real world if the theory is correct

Front 7

Operationalization

Back 7

One step beyond conceptualization. It is the process of developing operational definitions, or specifying the exact operations involved in measuring a variable

Front 8

Operational definition

Back 8

The concrete and specific definition of something in terms of the operations by which observations are to be categorized

Front 9

Null hypothesis

Back 9

In connection with hypothesis testing and tests of statistical significance, that hypothesis that suggests there is no relationship among the variable under study. You may conclude that the variables are related after having statistically rejected the null hypothesis

Front 10

Positivistic paradigm

Back 10

Assumes we can scientifically discover the rules governing social life

Front 11

Conflict paradigm

Back 11

Focuses on the attempt of one person or group to dominate others and to avoid being dominated

Front 12

Symbolic interactionist paradigm

Back 12

Examines how shared meanings and social patterns are developed in the course of social interactions

Front 13

Ethnomethodology

Back 13

Focuses on the ways people make sense out of life in the process of living it, as though each were a researcher engaged in an inquiry

Front 14

Structural functionalist paradigm

Back 14

Seeks to discover what functions the many elements of society perform for the whole systems

Front 15

Feminist paradigm

Back 15

In addition to drawing attention to the oppression of women in most societies, highlight how previous images of social reality have often come from and reinforced the experiences of men

Front 16

Correlation

Back 16

An empirical relationship between two variables such that 1 changes in one are associated with changes in the other or 2 particular attributes of one variable are associated with particular attributes of the other

Front 17

Spurious relationship

Back 17

A coincidental statistical correlation between two variable, shown to be cause by some third variable

Front 18

Units of analysis

Back 18

The what or whom being studied. In social science research, the most typical units of analysis are individual people

Front 19

Social artifact

Back 19

Any product of social beings or their behavior. Can be a unit of analysis.

Front 20

Ecological fallacy

Back 20

Erroneously basing conclusions about individuals solely on the observation of groups

Front 21

Reductionism

Back 21

A fault of some researchers: a strict limitations (reduction) of the kinds of concepts to be considered relevant to the phenomenon under study. Blaming a football coach for losing the game.

Front 22

Cross-sectional study

Back 22

A study based on observations representing a single point in time

Front 23

Longitudinal study

Back 23

A study design involving data collected at different points in time

Front 24

Trend study

Back 24

A type of longitudinal study in which a given characteristic of some populations is monitored over time

Front 25

Cohort study

Back 25

A study in which some specific subpopulations, or cohort, is studied over time, although data may be collected from different members in each set of observations

Front 26

Panel study

Back 26

A type of longitudinal study in which data re collected from the same set of people at several points in time

Front 27

Basic criteria for causation in nomothetic analysis

Back 27

1. variables must be correlated

2. cause before effect

3. no spurious relationship: no other variable could cause the effect

Front 28

Conceptualization

Back 28

The mental process whereby fuzzy and imprecise notions (concepts) are made more specific and precise

Front 29

Indicator

Back 29

An observation that we choose to consider as a reflection of a variable that we which to study. Attending a religious service might be considered an indicator or religiosity

Front 30

Dimension

Back 30

A specifiable aspect of a concept. Religiosity might be specified in terms of a belief dimension, ritual dimension etc.

Front 31

Nominal measure

Back 31

A variable whose attributes have only characteristics of exhaustiveness and mutual exclusiveness. Sex is an example

Front 32

Ordinal measure

Back 32

A level of measurement describing a variable with attributes we can rank-order along some dimensions. Socioeconomic status as composed of the attributes high, low, medium, etc is an example

Front 33

Interval measure

Back 33

A level of measurement describing a variable whose attributes are rank-ordered and have equal distances between adjacent attributes. Temperature for example

Front 34

Ratio measure

Back 34

A level of measurement describing a variable with attributes that have all the qualities of nominal, ordinal, and interval and in addition are based on a TRUE ZERO point. Age for example

Front 35

Reliability

Back 35

The quality of measurement methods that suggests that the same data would have been collected each time in repeated observations of the same phenomenon

Front 36

Validity

Back 36

A term describing a measure that accurately reflects the concept it is intended to measure

Front 37

Face validity

Back 37

That quality of an indicator that makes it seem a reasonable measure of some variable. It seems to make sense without a lot of explanation

Front 38

Criterion-related validity

Back 38

The degree to which a measure relates to some external criterion. Also called predictive validity

Front 39

Construct validity

Back 39

The degree to which a measure relates to other variables as expected within a system of theoretical relationships

Front 40

Content validity

Back 40

The degree to which a measure covers the range of meanings included within a concept

Front 41

Thick description

Back 41

The goal of understanding, as deeply as possible, the meaning that elements of a culture have for those who live within a culture (Clifford Geertz)

Front 42

Nonprobability sampling

Back 42

Any technique in which samples are selected in some way

Front 43

Purposive sampling

Back 43

A type of nonprobability sampling in which the units to be observed are selected on the basis of the researcher’s judgment about which ones will be the most useful or representative: judgmental sampling

Front 44

Snowball sampling

Back 44

A nonprobability sampling method, often employed in field research, whereby each person interviewed may be asked to suggest additional people for interviewing

Front 45

Quota sampling

Back 45

A type of nonprobability sampling in which units are selected into a sample on the basis of prespecified characteristics, so that the total sample will have the same distribution of characteristics assumed to exist in the population being studied

Front 46

Informant

Back 46

Someone who is well versed in the social phenomenon that you whish to study and how is willing to tell you what he or she know about is. Not to be confused with respondent

Front 47

Probability sampling

Back 47

The general term for samples selected in accordance with probability theory, typically involving some random-selection mechanism

Front 48

Representativeness

Back 48

That quality of a sample of having the same distribution of characteristics as the population from which it was selected

Front 49

EPSEM (equal probability of selection method)

Back 49

A sample design in which each member of a population has the same chance of being selected info the sample

Front 50

Element

Back 50

The unit of which a population is composed and which is selected in a sample

Front 51

Population

Back 51

The theoretically specified aggregation of the elements in a study

Front 52

Study population

Back 52

That aggregation of elements from which a sample is actually selected

Front 53

Random selection

Back 53

A sampling method in which each element has an equal chance of selection independent of any other event in the selection process

Front 54

Sampling unit

Back 54

That element or set of elements considered for selection in some stage of sampling

Front 55

Parameter

Back 55

The summary description of a given variable in a population

Front 56

Statistic

Back 56

The summary description of a variable in a sample used to estimate a population parameter

Front 57

Sampling error

Back 57

The degree of error to be expected in probability sampling

Front 58

Sampling frame

Back 58

That list or quasi list of units composing a population from which a sample is selected. If the sample is to be representative of the population, it is essential that the sampling frame include all (or nearly all) members of the population

Front 59

Simple random sampling

Back 59

A type of probability sampling in which the units composing a population are assigned numbers. A set of random numbers is then generated, and the units having those numbers are included in the sample

Front 60

Systematic sampling

Back 60

A type of probability sampling in which every … (certain number) unit in a list is selected for influsion in the sample. For example every 25th student.

Front 61

Sampling interval

Back 61

The standardized distance between elements selected from a population for a sample

Front 62

Sampling ratio

Back 62

The proportion of elements in the population that are selected to be in a sample

Front 63

Stratification

Back 63

The grouping of units composing a population into homogeneous groups before sampling

Front 64

Cluster sampling

Back 64

A multistage sampling in which natural groups are sampled initially, with the members of each selected group being subsamples afterward.

Front 65

PPS (probability proportionate to size)

Back 65

This refers to a type of multistage cluster sample in which clusters are selected, not with equal probabilities but with probabilities proportionate to their sizes – as measure by the number of units to be subsamples

Front 66

Weighting

Back 66

Assigning different weights to cases that were selected into a sample with different probabilities of selection

Front 67

Respondent

Back 67

A person who provides data for analysis by responding to a questionnaire

Front 68

Questionnaire

Back 68

A document containing questions and other types of items designed to solicit information appropriate for analysis. Used in survey research, but also in experiments, field research, and other modes of observation

Front 69

Open-ended questions

Back 69

Questions for which the respondent is asked to provide his or her own answers. In-depth, qualitative interviewing.

Front 70

Closed-ended questions

Back 70

Survey questions in which the respondent is asked to select an answer from among a list provided by the researcher. Provide a greater uniformity of responses and are more easily processed than open-ended questions

Front 71

Bias

Back 71

That quality of a measurement device that tends to result in misrepresentation, in a particular direction, of what is being measured

Front 72

Contingency questions

Back 72

A survey question for only some respondents, determined by their response to other questions

Front 73

Response rate

Back 73

The number if people participating in a survey divided by the number selected in the sample, in the form of a percentage. Also called the completion rate or return rate

Front 74

Interview

Back 74

A data-collection encounter in which one person asks questions of another

Front 75

Probe

Back 75

A technique employed in interviewing to solicit a more complete answer to a question. It is a nondirective phrase or question used to encourage a respondent to elaborate on an answer

Front 76

Secondary analysis

Back 76

A form of research in which the date collected an processed by on researcher are reanalyzed – often for a different purpose – by another

Front 77

Pretesting

Back 77

The measurement of a dependent variable among subjects before they are exposed to a stimulus representing an independent variable

Front 78

Post testing

Back 78

The remeasurement of a dependent variable among subjects after they’ve been exposed to a stimulus representing an independent variable

Front 79

Experimental group

Back 79

In experimentation, a group of subjects to whom an experimental stimulus is administered

Front 80

Control group

Back 80

In experimentation, a group of subjects to whom no experimental stimulus is administered and who resemble the experimental group in all other aspects

Front 81

Double-blind experiment

Back 81

An experimental design in which neither the subjects nor the experimenters know which is the experimental group and which is the control

Front 82

Randomization

Back 82

A technique for assigning experimental subjects to experimental and control groups randomly

Front 83

Matching

Back 83

On connection with experiments, the procedure whereby pairs of subjects are matched on the basis of their similarities on one or more variables, and one member of the pair is assigned to the experimental group and the other to the control group

Front 84

Internal validity

Back 84

Refers to the possibility that the conclusions drawn from experimental results may not accurately reflect what went on in the experiment itself

Front 85

External validity

Back 85

Refers to the possibility that conclusions drawn from experimental results may not be generalizable to the real world

Front 86

Field experiment

Back 86

A formal experiment conducted outside the laboratory, in a natural setting

Front 87

Unobtrusive research

Back 87

Methods of studying social behavior without affecting it

Front 88

Content analysis

Back 88

The study of recorded human communications, such as books, websites, paintings, laws. Advantages: economy, safety and ability to study processes occurring over a long time. Disadvantages: limited to recorded communications, can raise issues of reliability and validity

Front 89

Coding

Back 89

The process whereby raw data re transformed into standardized forms suitable for machine processing and analysis

Front 90

Manifest content

Back 90

In connection with content analysis, the concrete terms contained in a communication, as distinguished from latent content

Front 91

Latent content

Back 91

In connection with content analysis, the underlying meaning of communications

Front 92

Comparative and historical research

Back 92

The examination of societies over time and in comparison with one another

Front 93

Reactivity

Back 93

The problem that the subjects of social research may react to the fact of being studied, thus altering their behavior from what it would have been normally

Front 94

Naturalism

Back 94

An approach to field research based on the assumption that an objective social reality exists and can be observed and reported accurately

Front 95

Ethnography

Back 95

A report on social life that focuses on detailed and accurate description rather than explanation

Front 96

Ethnomethodology

Back 96

An approach to the study of social life that focuses on the discovery of implicit, usually unspoken assumptions and agreements, this method often involves the intentional breaking of agreements as a way of revealing their existence

Front 97

Grounded theory

Back 97

An inductive approach to the study of social life that attempts to generate a theory from the constant comparing of unfolding observations. This differs greatly from hypothesis testing, in which theory is used to generate hypothesis to be tested through observation

Front 98

Case study

Back 98

The in-depth examination of a single instance of some social phenomenon, such as a village, a family …

Front 99

Extended case method

Back 99

A technique developed by Michael Buroway in which case study observations are used to discover flaws in and to improve existing social theories

Front 100

Institutional ethnography

Back 100

A research technique in which the personal experiences of individuals are used to reveal power relationships and other characteristics of the institutions in which they operate

Front 101

PAR (participatory action research)

Back 101

An approach to social research in which the people being studied are given control over the purpose and procedures of the research; intended as a counter to the implicit view that researchers are superior to those they study

Front 102

Emancipatory research

Back 102

Research conducted for the purpose of benefiting disadvantaged groups

Front 103

Rapport

Back 103

An open and trusting relationship especially important in qualitative research between researchers and the people they’re observing

Front 104

Qualitative interview

Back 104

Contrasted with survey interviewing, the qualitative interview is based on a set of topics to be discussed in depth rather than the use of standardized questions

Front 105

Qualitative analysis

Back 105

The nonnumerical examination and interpretation of observations, for the purpose of discovering underlying meanings and patterns of relationships. Field research and historical research

Front 106

Cross-case analysis

Back 106

An analysis that involves an examination of more than one case, either a variable-oriented or case-oriented analysis

Front 107

Variable-oriented analysis

Back 107

An analysis that describes and/or explains a particular variable

Front 108

Case-oriented analysis

Back 108

An analysis that aims to understand a particular case or several cases by looing closely at the details of each

Front 109

GTM, grounded theory method

Back 109

An inductive approach to research introduced by Barney Glaser and Anselm Strauss in which theories are generated solely from an examination of data rather than being derived deductively

Front 110

Constant comparative method

Back 110

A component of the GTM in which observations are compared with one another and with evolving inductive theory

Front 111

Semiotics

Back 111

The study of signs and the meanings associated with them. This is commonly associated with content analysis

Front 112

Conversation analysis, CA

Back 112

A meticulous analysis of the details of conversation, based on a complete transcript that included pauses, hems, and also haws

Front 113

Open coding

Back 113

The initial classification and labeling of concepts in qualitative data analysis. In open coding, the codes are suggested by the researchers examination and questioning of the data

Front 114

Axial coding

Back 114

A reanalysis of the results of open coding in GTM aimed at identifying the important general concepts

Front 115

Selective coding

Back 115

In GTM, this analysis build on the results of open and axial coding to identify the central concept that organizes the other concepts that have been identified in a body of textual materials