B3 Spencer

Front 1

1 What are metabolic reactions?

Back 1

Chemical reactions happening in the body

Front 2

2 What is metabolic waste?

Back 2

Waste products produced in metabolic reactions which must be removed from the blood

Front 3

3 Name two metabolic waste products

Back 3

- CO2

- Urea (CO(NH2)2)

Front 4

4 How is CO2 removed from the body?

Back 4

It is breathed out

Front 5

5 What removes urea from the body?

Back 5

The kidneys

Front 6

6 What is ejestion?

Back 6

The removal of solid waste

Front 7

7 What is excretion?

Back 7

The removal of metabolic waste

Front 8

8 What is produced when protein is broken down?

Back 8

Nitrogenous waste (must be removed from the body)

Front 9

9 What is produced when amino acids are broken down?

Back 9

Ammonia (very toxic)

Front 10

10 What is ammonia converted into in the kidneys?

Back 10

Urea

Front 11

11 What happens to urea in the kidneys?

Back 11

Removed from the blood and incorporated into the urine

Front 12

12 What does the renal artery do?

Back 12

Brings oxygenated blood full of toxins to the kidney

Front 13

13 What does the renal vein do?

Back 13

Takes de-oxygenated blood which is clean away from the kidneys

Front 14

14 What is the primary purpose of the kidneys?

Back 14

Removes toxins from the blood (filtration) and produces urine

Front 15

15 What does the urethra do?

Back 15

Carries urine from the kidneys to the bladder

Front 16

16 What do nephrons do?

Back 16

They are tiny filtration systems

Front 17

17 Why can a person function properly with only one kidney?

Back 17

As each kidney has about 1,000,000 nephrons

Front 18

18 What do nephrons filter out?

Back 18

Metabolic waste

Front 19

19 Why is there an extensive blood supply to the nephrons?

Back 19

To maintain the constant concentration gradient

Front 20

20 What is the glomerulus?

Back 20

Extensive network of capillaries

Front 21

21 How is there a constant supply of blood in the glomerulus?

Back 21

As all the blood is pushed through small capillaries (M25 going into 1 lane)

Front 22

22 What is ultrafiltration?

Back 22

When small molecules (urea, water, sugar, salt, amino acids) are filtered into the Bowman's capsule because of the high pressure

Front 23

23 What is the Bowman's capsule?

Back 23

A capsule shaped membranous structure surrounding the glomerulus which extracts waste from the blood

Front 24

24 Why is ultrafiltration inefficient?

Back 24

As 99% of things absorbed into Bowman's capsule are reabsorbed

Front 25

25 Why is ultrafiltration inefficient?

Back 25

As the heart pumps at high hydrostatic pressure, so everything is pushed out of the capillary to prevent in bursting.

Front 26

26 How is the size of urea a factor in ultrafiltration?

Back 26

Urea not a very small molecule - in order for it to be extracted from blood, every smaller molecule must be filtered out into Bowman's capsule too

Front 27

27 What is the function of the first convoluted tube?

Back 27

All glucose and amino acids are re-absorbed here

Front 28

28 How are glucose and amino acids re-absorbed in the first convoluted tube?

Back 28

A lot of mitochondria in this part of nephron -> gives a lot of energy, used for active transport

Front 29

29 What is the loop of Henlé?

Back 29

Part of nephron that loops down and then sharply upwards: helps with osmoregulation

Front 30

30 What is the function of the second convoluted tube and the collecting duct?

Back 30

Re-absorption if salt and water (how much is dependent on body's needs (e.g. if body is dehydrated, will absorb as much water as possible)

Front 31

31 Why is salt important?

Back 31

Needed to maintain a water diffusion gradient

Front 32

32 Define osmoregulation

Back 32

The homeostatic process maintaining water levels and concentration

Front 33

33 What is ADH?

Back 33

Antidiuretic hormone

Front 34

34 Where is ADH produced and how does it travel around the body?

Back 34

Produced in the pituitary gland and travels in blood

Front 35

35 What is the primary function of ADH?

Back 35

Reducing the water levels in urine, so the body retains water

Front 36

36 How does ADH conserve water?

Back 36

Increasing membrane permeability (vesicles called aquaporins join with the membrane) thus increasing re-absorption of water into blood from collecting duct

Front 37

37 How is ADH negative feedback?

Back 37

More ADH released = less water released from body

More ADH = less pee

Front 38

38 What is the follicle?

Back 38

Fluid-filled sac in the ovary that contains the egg

Front 39

39 Define menstrual cycle

Back 39

The monthly cycle involving the reproductive organs of a woman which involves ovulation and menstruation

Front 40

40 Name the 4 stages of the menstrual cycle

Back 40

1. Menstruation

2. Repair of uterus lining

3. Ovulation

4. Maturation (of uterus)

Front 41

41 Describe the average days at which each stage occurs

Back 41

1. Menstruation - day 1-5

2. Repair - day 6-13

3. Ovulation - day 13-15

4 Maturation - day 15-28

Front 42

42 What are the 4 main hormones which control the menstrual cycle?

Back 42

Oestrogen, progesterone, FSH and LH

Front 43

43 Where are oestrogen and progesteron produced and used?

Back 43

Produced in ovaries but used in uterus

Front 44

44 Where are FSH and Lh produced and used?

Back 44

Produced in pituitary gland, act in ovaries

Front 45

45 What does FSH stand for?

Back 45

Follicle stimulating hormone

Front 46

46 What does LH stand for?

Back 46

Liutenising hormone

Front 47

47 What does FSH do?

Back 47

Stimulates growth and maturation of the follicle

Front 48

48 Why is oestrogen produced?

Back 48

Maturation of follicle stimulates oestrogen production

Front 49

49 What does oestrogen do?

Back 49

Causes uterus lining production to thicken and triggers release of LH

Front 50

50 How is ovulation triggered?

Back 50

Surge in LH

Front 51

51 What is ovulation?

Back 51

When the egg is released from the follicle

Front 52

52 After the egg is released, what is left behind?

Back 52

Corpus Luteum

Front 53

53 What does the corpus luteum do?

Back 53

Secretes progesterone

Front 54

54 What does the secretion of progesterone do?

Back 54

Inhibits FSH and LH, preventing the maturation of the follicle

Front 55

55 What causes menstruation?

Back 55

Falling oestrogen and progesterone levels

Front 56

56 What triggers the secretion of FSH?

Back 56

Falling oestrogen and progesterone levels

Front 57

57 What is the function of the acrosome?

Back 57

Head of the sperm cell - contains digestive enzymes to penetrate the outer layer of the ovum

Front 58

58 What happens to the ovum immediately after fertilization?

Back 58

The cell membrane adapts to block the entry of other sperm

Front 59

59 What is the genotype for girls?

Back 59

XX

Front 60

60 What is the genotype for boys?

Back 60

XY

Front 61

61 What determines the sex of a child?

Back 61

the Y chromosome, so therefore the sperm cell

Front 62

62 Is a boy or girl more likely to get a recessive X-related disease?

Back 62

A boy as they don't have another X which can overpower the recessive X

Front 63

63 Name two X linked and recessive diseases?

Back 63

Haemophilia and red/green color blindness

Front 64

64 Where is red/green color blindness located?

Back 64

In a female X chromosome

Front 65

65 How is red/green color blindness denoted?

Back 65

Xc

Front 66

66 What effect does being haemophiliac have?

Back 66

You can't clot blood

Front 67

67 What symbol is the haemophilia chromosome given?

Back 67

XH

Front 68

68 What is an antigen?

Back 68

A substance found on a cell surface membrane, which triggers and immune response. It identifies the cell as a foreign body.

Front 69

69 What are antibodies?

Back 69

Proteins produced by white blood cells to destroy pathogens

Front 70

70 How specific is each antibody in attacking foreign bodies?

Back 70

It can only bind to the antigen that caused it to be produced

Front 71

71 What is agglutination?

Back 71

Clumping together of foreign cells

Front 72

72 How many antigens can each antibody bond to?

Back 72

2 --> brings antigens together

Front 73

73 What are lymphocytes?

Back 73

A type of WBC which produce antibody to fight antigens

Front 74

74 What is a T-lymphocyte?

Back 74

Lymphocyte which recognises antigens on pathogens and either attacks directly or coordinates activity of other cells in immune system

Front 75

75 What is a B-lymphocyte?

Back 75

Lymphocyte which recognises antigens and produces special chemical called antibodies

Front 76

76 How do B-lymphocytes work?

Back 76

1. foreign body enters the body

2. b-lymphocytes produce antibodies

3. specifically shaped antibodies made

4. antibodies fit onto antigens

5. bacteria covered by antibodies - can't divide

6. Bacteria agglutinate

7. Phagocytes surround + destroy bacteria

Front 77

77 What are phagocytes

Back 77

Type of WBC that surrounds, engulfs and digests the foreign body

Front 78

78 What is a macrophage?

Back 78

A type of phagocyte that engulfs engulfs foreign system and shows it on itself, triggering an immune response

Front 79

79 Describe the role of a macrophage in an immune response to a virus

Back 79

1. macrophage engulfs virus + presents it (APC - antigen presenting cell) --> triggers immune response

2. Helper T-cell coordinates immune response

Front 80

80 Describe the role of a helper T-cell in an immune response to a virus

Back 80

1. produces a memory helper T-cell - stored in body for years and used if pathogen enters body again

2. also stimulates correct B-lymphocyte to be found in a lymph node

Front 81

81 Describe the role of a B-lymphocyte in an immune response to a virus

Back 81

1. produces a memory B-cell

2. also produces a plasma cell, which produces antibodies which destroy the vitus

Front 82

82 How does a vaccine help your immune system?

Back 82

1. vaccine contains weakened diseases microbes

2. makes WBC produce antibodies, so memory cells are made so that the body knows how to deal with the pathogens in the future