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65 Cards in this Set
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What are some characteristics & clinical signs of sick birds?
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hide dz signs
show similar signs regardless of cause -inactivity/sleeping -fluffed feathers -↓ vocalization -↓ appetite -↓ or abnormal droppings -change in behavior -excessive sneezing, d/c need stabilization poor nutrition & husbandry often underlie dz |
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What are some characteristics of the avian integumentary system?
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skin is thinner, less vascular than mammals, & is sensitive
pain sensitive areas: feather follicles, cloaca birds spend 25% of their day preening |
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budgerigar (aka parakeet)
a. dimorphic or monomorphic b. personality c. common conditions d. life span e. ID |
a. dimorphic
b. most popular bird in US: fair talkers c. tumors (esp. renal), hepatic lipidosis, polyoma virus, Giardia d. 7-10 y. e. parakeet body conformation: slender body, small head & beak, long tail, 30-35 g. |
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cockatiels
a. dimorphic or monomorphic b. personality c. common conditions d. life span e. ID |
a. dimorphic
b. great pets, whistle well c. chlamydiosis, URI, chronic egg laying, obesity/hepatic lipidosis -URI: Gram (-) bacteria (Chlamydophila psittaci, Staph aureus, Helicobacter (pharyngitis)) d. 15-20 y. e. parakeet body conformation, have a crest, 90-120 g. |
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lovebirds
a. dimorphic or monomorphic b. personality c. common conditions d. life span e. ID |
a. monomorphic
b. don't talk, aggressive c. circovirus, polyoma virus, Candida d. 10-12 y. e. stocky birds w/ short tail, 40-60 g. |
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conures
a. dimorphic or monomorphic b. personality c. common conditions d. life span e. ID |
a. monomorphic
b. playful, noisy, some talk c. herpes virus, polyoma virus, screaming, feather picking d. 20-30 y. e. stockier body conformation & larger beak & head than parakeets, long tail, 80-250 g. |
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amazon parrots
a. dimorphic or monomorphic b. personality c. common conditions d. life span e. ID |
a. monomorphic
b. entertaining, some talk well, 1 owner birds c. obesity, papillomas, URI, feather picking d. 40-60 y. e. medium sized stocky birds w/ short tail, 250-600 g. |
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african grey parrots
a. dimorphic or monomorphic b. personality c. common conditions d. life span e. ID |
a. monomorphic
b. highly intelligent, talk -anxious, may become phobic: handle gently, no severe wing or nail trims, socialize after medical procedures c. feather picking, hypocalcemia (may occur even if on normal diet: tremors, seizures, falling off perch) d. 40-50 y. e. medium sized head & body w/ short tail, 225-650 g. |
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macaws
a. dimorphic or monomorphic b. personality c. common conditions d. life span e. ID |
a. monomorphic
b. highly intelligent, can be destructive, talk c. feather picking, obesity, papillomas, proventricular dilatation dz d. 20-40 y. for smaller species, 40-50 y. for large e. largest of psittacines, bare facial patch, massive beak & long tail, 200-1600 g. |
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cockatoos
a. dimorphic or monomorphic b. personality c. common conditions d. life span e. ID |
a. sort of dimorphic
b. friendly, can be destructive c. feather picking, bad behavior, mate trauma (males may attack & kill female during breeding season), circovirus -bad behaviors: attention demanding, aggression (older males), pair bonding w/ owner (cloacal prolapse in males, panting in females), self mutilation d. 30-60 y. e. medium length tail, variably sized crest, powder down (fine dust that coats & conditions feathers: may not be good for people w/ allergies) |
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What are some characteristics of birds that allow for flight?
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thoracic & lumbar spine fused: rigid airframe for attachment of wings (only cervical spine is mobile)
many bones are hollow to reduce weight weight is centralized: head is small organs are compact & anchored in place efficient resp. system feathers |
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What are some possible dermatologic problems of birds?
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beak lesions
-ramphotheca is closely applied to periosteum -swelling or infection can cause pressure necrosis -debride lesions & seal w/ dental acrylic -possible conditions: mandibular prognathism, lateral deviation of beak dermatological problems -feather destruction behavior: common -dermatitis: rare; serious when present: usually in axillary area -circovirus causes feather dysplasia -discolored feathers often related to diet or hepatic dz |
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What are some characteristics of the avian skeletal system?
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some bones are pneumatized
many bones are fused thin, brittle cortex: use lighter, less invasive orthopedic repairs hyperostosis: laying hens agonal cranial hemorrhage is normal |
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What are some characteristics of the avian respiratory system?
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both inspiration & expiration involve air exchange in lungs
cervico-cephalic air sac -extension of periorbital sinus -no connection w/ lung or other air sacs -hyperinflation --> neck swelling trachea -no epiglottis -complete tracheal rings -syrinx: equivalent to mammalian larynx -much dead space -use uncuffed ET tubes -rough handling of ET tube can cause tracheal stricture -respiration is slower & deeper -see inspiratory dyspnea w/ tracheal blockage: can place air sac tube air sacs -no significant gas exchange occurs there: stores a volume of air -encircle viscera |
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What are some characteristics of the avian urinary system?
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kidneys are fixed in renal fossa (synsacrum)
no bladder or urethra produce uric acid have renal portal system gout: visceral (usually agonal event) or articular (pain --> lameness) clinical impact of urinary system anatomy -renal dz is hard to detect -clin path: plasma uric acid, urine casts -best dx: endoscopy & bx -water balance independent of GFR |
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What are some characteristics of the avian reproductive system?
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gonads at cranial pole of kidney
usually only L ovary/oviduct in female birds tract enlarges during breeding season empty into urodeum of cloaca |
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What are some characteristics of the avian digestive system?
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mouth, crop, proventriculus, ventriculus, intestines, cloaca
repro, urinary systems, rectum --> cloaca crop: expandable portion of esophagus located at thoracic inlet that stores & moistens food proventriculus: glandular portion of stomach ventriculus (gizzard): mixes & grinds food food is retropulsed b'twn duodenum, ventriculus, & proventriculus accomplishing digestion w/ a short GI tract & no teeth |
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What are some characteristics of the avian immune system?
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humeral + cell mediated immunity
no lymph nodes 1º lymphoid organs: bursa of Fabricius, thymus (jugular furrow) thymus involutes as bird develops 2º lymphoid organ: spleen caseous pus |
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What are some characteristics of the avian eye?
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see in UV spectrum
higher flicker fusion frequency skeletal muscle in iris pectin in posterior segment: provides nourishment to back of eye |
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What are the sites for venipuncture & how much blood can be safely taken?
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R jugular v. preferred
wings OK: hematoma formation medial metatarsal v.: good in many clip nail only as last resort collect max of 1% of body wt. in grams (1 ml/100 g body wt.) |
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What are clinical implications of avian respiratory anatomy?
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more sensitive to respiratory irritants & toxins: esp. burned teflon
able to hide respiratory signs until markedly compromised anesthesia -large dead space -breathe more slowly & deeply: 6-10 bpm -expiration & expiration are active processes -don’t lean of chest -end tidal CO2 is important indicator of ventilation: maintain at 20-40 mm Hg |
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What are some differences b'twn avian & mammalian blood?
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nucleated RBCs
thrombocytes vs. platelets heterophils vs. neutrophils function of eosinophils & basophils is obscure cannot count w/ automated counters |
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What are the interpretations of the following CBC findings?
a. heterophilia b. monocytosis c. anemia |
a. inflammation, infection
b. chronic dz, esp. aspergillosis, chlamydiosis, mycobacteriosis c. most commonly assoc. w/ chronic dz |
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What are characteristics of the following Chem parameters in birds?
a. AST b. CK c. LD d. glucose |
a. non-specific tissue damaged: marked ↑ usually hepatic
b. skeletal & cardiac muscle, extensive nervous tissue damage c. similar to AST, but more labile d. normal values higher than in mammals: 220-350 µg/dl -hypoglycemia: rare in parrots, common in raptors -DM rarely occurs in parrots |
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How would you interpret the following Chem results:
a. increased bile acids b. increased uric acid d. hypocalcemia e. hypercalcemia |
a. single test OK
↑ bile acids = ↓ hepatic function -avoid hepatic cleared drugs -consider use of Actigal -most common causes: hepatic lipidosis, infectious dz b. ↑ w/ renal dysfunction: dz precedes elevation -mild ↑ w/ dehydration -tx any ↑ in uric acid w/ fluids to avoid deposition of uric acid in tissues (gout) c. laying hen, nestling birds fed poor diet, African greys d. laying hen, vitamin D toxicity |
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What are some Chem parameters that are interpreted similar to mammals?
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total protein: best evaluated by electrophoresis
albumin: accurate measurement is difficult cholesterol: assoc. w/ obesity phosphorous: ↑ w/ advanced renal dz ALP: ↑ w/ bone remodeling, GI, biliary stasis electrolytes: normals not well established |
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What are the uses of the following imaging techniques in birds:
a. rads b. U/S c. endoscopy |
a. routine in sick birds: usually whole body
-screen for organomegaly, metal b. air sacs limit usefulness -very useful for abdominal distension, hepatomegaly, or ascites c. air sacs facilitate procedure: portal of entry (caudal thoracic air sac) -can visualize most internal organs -can do bx or aspirate, diode laser sx |
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What are ddx for a decompensated sick bird?
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Gram (-) infection (most common), lead/zinc toxicity, chlamydiosis, neglect, other toxin exposure, other infectious dz, hepatic lipidosis, female repro problem, SBI
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What are the steps in stabilizing a sick bird?
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minimize stress
address: hypovolemia dyspnea dehydration hypothermia starvation sepsis metal intoxication egg bound bird |
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What is the "shotgun tx" for a sick bird?
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LRS 50 ml/kg + deficit
Gram (-) bacteria: Baytril SQ in fluids Chlamydiosis: Doxycycline PO heavy metal intoxication: Ca EDTA IM Aspergillosis: Terbinafine PO NO multiple dose steroids --> immunosuppression |
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What diagnostics may be used in a decompensated sick bird?
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hematocrit tube (PCV, TS, buffy coat, plasma characteristics)
blood smear (estimated WBC count, diff, toxic cells, anemia response, parasites) fecal gram stain rads CBC, Chem metal tests infectious dz tests |
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tx for sick birds:
a. stress b. hypovolemia c. dyspnea |
a. critical b/c birds hide signs of dz, presenting signs are non-specific, difficult to quickly establish dx
-minimize capture/holding time: decide on your plan & set up prior to getting bird out -minimize disturbances: provide warm dim cage away from people & other animals b. bird will appear weak & moribund -assess via BP or venous return to wing v. -bolus LRS at 10-20 ml/kg IV or IO -consider using plasma extenders c. assess for open mouth breathing, chest excursion, tail bobbing -O2 cage best -else “blow” or mask O2 via anesthesia machine -air sac tube if tracheal obstruction present |
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tx for sick birds:
a. dehydration b. hypothermia c. starvation |
a. assess eyelid return, skin turgor (toe)
-LRS SQ or IO (PO if stable) -maintenance: ~50 ml/kg/day b. assess: cold (fluffed, huddled), hot (sleek, wings extended, panting) tx -warm cage best: 83-86º F -can use ceramic heat lamps, heaters -must monitor closely to avoid heat stress c. assess: hx, droppings, wt. loss -tube feed 2-3x daily -don’t handle for 3-8 hrs -use commercial parrot formulas: warm, watery -B vitamins -vit. A if on all seed diet |
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How can bacterial dz be diagnosed?
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aerobic/anaerobic culture
-cloaca: GI, renal, repro -choana: URI -crop: nestling w/ stasis cytology |
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What are some normal psittacine bacterial flora?
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gram (+) rods: Lactobacillus, Corynebacteria, Bacillus
gram (+) cocci: Staph (not Staph auerus), non-hemolytic Strep |
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What are common presentations of bacterial dz?
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general illness, alimentary tract dz, hepatitis, sepsis, resp. dz
not all abnormal flora cause dz: non-pathogenic E. coli & Enterobacter strains are common mammal induced wounds -always tx ASAP w/ broad spectrum ABs -Pasteurella multocida, other gram (-) organisms, anaerobes possible Pseudomonas aeruginosa -often causes URI, sepsis -source often assoc. w/ water -often resistant to ABs Clostridiosis -common cause of smelly droppings -C. perfringens can cause severe enteritis, cloacitis, & death |
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What is the general management of bacterial dz?
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collect culture & bx specimens
start empirical ABs for sick birds: modify based on C/S monitor response to tx find & eliminate source of dz |
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Chalmydiosis
a. etiologic agent b. signs in people c. life stages |
a. Chlamydophila psittaci
b. flu like signs, +/- GI signs, atypical pneumonia, rare cardiac/CNS signs -distinguish from C. pneumoniae (people only) -very responsive to Doxycycline c. elementary body: infectious, survives extracellularly, does NOT multiply -reticulate body: non-infectious, intracellular, reproductive & metabolically active stage |
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Chalmydiosis
a. transmission b. clinical signs |
a. aerosols of droppings/exudates: most common
-fecal-oral -parent to nestling -all birds in same air space as infected bird are considered “exposed” -no long lasting immunity in birds or people b. highly variable, non-specific -often asymptomatic -sick bird w/ URI or GI signs, biliverdinuria, hepatosplenomegaly |
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How is Chalmydiosis diagnosed?
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PCR: conjunctiva --> choana --> cloaca, all on same swab
culture serology: EBA (preferred: elementary body agglutination test), microimmunofluorescence -measures IgM: IgG titers may persist for years other -cytology: intracytoplasmic inclusions (need special stains) -immuno/stains (FA) -histopath: non-specific -Ag tests (immunocomb) |
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How is Chalmydiosis treated?
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tx all exposed birds long term (30-45 d.)
-options: doxycycline (drug of choice) mediated water or food, vibrovenos injection, chlortetracycline medicated food sick birds: use oral or injectable administration until stable: medicated food & water may not be adequately consumed -↓ dietary calcium: chelation w/ Doxy -maximize husbandry b/c 2º infections common other: monitor birds, tx concurrent dz, stop breeding, ↓ stress, clean & disinfect shortly before tx ends |
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What are some common psittacine viruses?
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polyoma virus, proventricular dilatation dz, psittacine circovirus (PBFD), cloacal/internal papillomas, Pacheco’s herpesvirus (uncommon)
viruses commonly show up in birds mixed from different sources |
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How are viral diseases diagnosed?
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DNA PCR tests
histopath: inclusions culture: can’t do for most viruses +/- serology: indicates exposure, not infection |
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polyoma virus
a. virus characteristics b. clinical signs: budgies vs. other psittacines |
a. potentially can infect all psittacine nestlings
-environmentally stable -different polyoma virus affects finches b. affects nestling aged birds -adults usually asymptomatic -most common in hand fed birds in nurseries or pet stores budgerigars -onset at 10-20 d. -ascites, crop stasis, feather absence & malformation -recovered birds often stunted w/ malformed or missing feathers other psittacines -peak incidence at time of feathering -crop stasis, then rapid decline -hemorrhages, poor clotting |
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polyoma virus
a. dx b. control |
a. PCR: cloaca, blood, feather dander, tissues
histopath: basophilic IN & IC inclusions +/- serology: adults maintain long term titers b. don’t mix nestlings from different sources maximize nursery husbandry stop breeding for 1 yr. vaccine: killed -large volume -aluminum hydroxide adjuvant -do vaccinate nestlings (2 doses 2 wks apart), adult vaccination controversial |
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circovirus: beak & feather dz
a. virus characteristics b. host susceptibility c. clinical signs |
a. highly stable & resistant to disinfectants
b. clinical dz usually only in old world birds (lovebirds, cockatoos, lories, eclectus, African greys, poicephalus) & all nestlings -adult new world birds rarely show signs or are permanently affected c. asymptomatic carriers common -see both acute & chronic forms -feather dystrophy, beak necrosis (rare), bursal/thymic necrosis, pancytopenia -2º infections common (d/t immunosuppression) |
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circovirus: beak & feather dz
a. dx b. interpretation of (+) PCR c. control |
a. PCR: blood, tissue, feather dander; PCV-1 probe does not cross react
IC & IN inclusions in tissue (ex. feather follicle) b. old world bird w/ signs: permanently infected; isolate or euthanize old world bird w/o signs: retest in 90 d. new world bird: retest in 90 d. + find source of exposure c. PCR test suspect old world birds lovebirds: common carriers decontaminate then test environment test veterinary facilities |
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psittacine papillomas
a. characteristics b. dx for cloacal form c. tx for cloacal form |
a. etiology unknown: herpesvirus?
-affect new world birds -usually cloacal, sometimes internal (esp. in Macaws) b. routinely check all new world psittacines evert cloaca w/ moist swabs: can use weak acid to highlight small lesions best dx w/ anesthesia & scope c. palliative removal: avoid cloacal sphincter damage chemical cautery: NaNO3 radio/laser/cryosurgery cyclic changes common papillomas often recur |
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proventricular dilatation dz
a. characteristics b. clinical signs c. ddx |
a. etiologic agent, mode of transmission unknown
more common in indoor aviaries labile in environment b. prolonged incubation GI: wasting, maldigestion, vomiting (de-enervation of gut) CNS: ataxia, head tremors PNS: leg weakness 2º infections common d/t gut malassimilation c. Pb/Zn intoxication, fungal proventriculitis, GI blockage (ex. FB, tumor, parasites), viral encephalitis (PMV 3), GI dilatation is NORMAL in nestling birds |
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How is proventricular dilatation dz diagnosed?
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rads w/ contrast: dilated GI tract segments
-fast birds to avoid confusion w/ food fluoroscopy: abnormal GI motility -barium works best, iohexol OK -no restraint, not stress -can assess motility of entire tract bx w/ step section: crop < ventriculus or proventriculus EM of feces if available histopath -lymphoplasmacytic ganglioneuritis & encephalitis -lesions segmental -ventriculus & proventriculus most commonly affected -CNS, PNS, cardiac lesions possible |
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proventricular dilatation dz
a. tx b. managing in a collection |
a. responds to tx in early stages
COX-2 inhibitors: celecoxib, meloxicam feed liquid or highly digestible diet control 2º infections isolate permanently? b. permanently isolate cagemates quarantine exposed birds for 2 yrs disperse cages, ↑ airflow feed seed, check droppings fluoroscopy on suspect birds when can birds be sold? |
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What are characteristics of internal papillomatosis?
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most common in Military, GW, & B&G macaws
may interfere w/ digestion --> wasting 2º infections common no reliable tx |
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What is the scheme for fluid therapy in sick birds?
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if sick bird, assume 10% dehydrated
0.1 x wt (g) = x mL needed per day for 1st 2 days of tx after 2 days, give x/2 mL of fluids per day |
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vitamin A
a. important for... b. signs of deficiency |
a. epithelial surfaces
b. blunting of choanal papillae, white plaques in oral cavity |
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What are 2 complications of improper tube feeding technique?
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regurg & possible aspiration
perforation of crop w/ forceful placement of tube or use of an overly long tube |
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What are some sites for SQ fluid administration? What fluid types can be used?
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interscapular space b'twn shoulders on either side of spine
inguinal web area b'twn stifle & body wall LRS, sterile saline, NOT 5% dextrose in water 25-26 G needle |
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What is a site for IM injection?
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pectorals
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figure 8 wing bandage
a. indications b. problems |
a. fx of radius, ulna, metacarpals, humerus (combined w/ wing body wrap), elbow & carpal luxations
b. too tight at carpus, slips off at elbow (too low on humerus), bird chewing bandage |
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wing body wrap
a. indications b. problems |
a. fx of humerus (combined w/ figure 8 wrap), clavicle & coracoid, or shoulder luxation
b. too tight, too loose, too low |
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What are some pre- & intra-op considerations for anesthesia in birds?
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pre-op: evaluate general health status, hydration, BCS, empty crop, etc.
intra-op: maintain body temp, provide warmed fluids, analgesics, & ABs, as indicated |
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How are birds intubated?
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mask or tube (cole tube or other non-cuffed tubes used to prevent vascular necrosis of trachea)
glottis located at caudal part of tongue once intubated, tube taped to lower beak |
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How are birds monitored during anesthesia?
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CV: stethoscope (HR, rhythm), doppler U/S monitor, indirect BP, ECG
resp: RR using visual monitoring, capnography, resp. monitors cloacal or esophageal temp probes reflexes: most useful are muscle tone, jaw tone, response to pain (toe pinch or feather plucking) |
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Why is administration of 5% dextrose in water contraindicated for SQ use in a dehydrated birds?
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it would suck fluid from the extracellular space, causing more severe dehydration
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What are 2 indications for the placement of an intraosseus catheter?
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repeat IV medication, administration of IV fluids (saving the veins)
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rhinitis
a. signs b. dx |
a. sneezing, nasal d/c, choanal irritation, feather loss above cere, grooves in beak, unable to flush nares
b. choanal culture: used when there’s problem of upper resp. tract -nasal flush: hold bird at 60º angle, instill warm saline, catch 1st volume for cytology |
