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160 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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social organization
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patterning of human interdependence in a society
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political organization
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society's formal/informal institutions that regulate a population's collective acts
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gender roles
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indicate: jobs, activities, decisions made
tell from: skeletons |
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kinship
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socially recognized network of relationships through which individuals are related to each other by descent/marriages
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clans and moieties
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clans are larger connections, moieties are connections of clans
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scale of society
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depends on...
-relative size -# parts (social groups, economic specialization) -organization (leadership-power, authority, wealth) |
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distinction between power and authority
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power- ability to enforce it
authority- ability to tell them what to do |
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multilinear evolution
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each society's development is conditioned by its ecological setting, neighboring societies, traditions
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bands
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-50-100
-kinship based -self-sufficient family units -egalitarian (informal leadership) -subsistence (HG), foraging -settlement: high mobility and seasonal movement, little territoriality -possessions: impermanent homes, expedient tools what seen archaeo? -not a lot of material in 1 area, HG remains, no burial distinction, seasonal camps, little variation in material culture |
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paleoindians
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(13,000 BP in N America)
Their movement was studied through sourcing; sparse remains, few settlement sites, portable tools, clovis points, mastodon kill site in TN, site across continent, pop small, in lots of sites, near rivers |
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Late Paleoindian (11,000-8,000 YA) Great Basin sites in Nevada
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-Hunters and gatherers
-Hunted birds and animals around marshes -studied movement through sourcing (analyzed tools, determined their sources, figure out where ppl are traveling to get the raw materials --> source distributions (determine areas of band groups) |
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tribes
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-100s-1000s
-informal leadership (part-time political/religious leaders, achieved status) -broader social networks (pan-tribal associations for important decisions and social interactions) -subsistence: mixed strategy (farming and HG) -settlement: semi-sedentary, villages and houses) |
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Zuni, Iroquois and Sioux
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examples of tribes
what we see? -more permanent camps/villages, little status distinction in burials, lmtd material culture (pottery present) |
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Iroquoian Cultures
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-1st evidence AD 600, NY and Ontario
-arch remains include pottery, smoking pipes, well defined houses, bone tools -sites occupied 20 years, long houses with a wall surrounding -devastation of colonization and disease -POPULATION SIZE OF HOUSE: family size x # compartments |
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chiefdoms
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-5,000-20,000
-ranked society (kinships, hereditary leaders {chiefs with religious responsibilities}, ascribed status) -economy: food productions, some craft specialization, chief has control of surplus and redistribution, and there is tribute -settlement: permanent villages, settlement hierarchy, fortified population centers, ritual centers and monuments, elaborate burial facilities |
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what seen arch from chiefdoms?
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settlement hierarchy, monuments, status diff in burials, prestige goods, domestication of plants and animals
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Mississippian cultures
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-AD 1000-1500
-centered on major river valleys -large mounds (flat top)- chiefs house, religious meeting places burials: shell bead mat underneath vs sacrifices thrown together with no heads or hands artifacts: monolithic axe (for ruler), non-functional stone artifacts, elaborate pottery (animal motifs, faces), shell ornaments |
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states
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-20,000+
-stratified society (class system, authoritative ruler, centralized bureaucracy, state religions) -economy: craft specialization/ industry, full time specialists and artisans (standing army), trade and exchange networks -writing systems settlement: urban centers, borders, roads, public structures |
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what seen arch from states?
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-urban centers
-monuments -stat diff in burials -evidence of exchange (markets) |
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Aztecs (controlled territory from GOM to Atlantic, AND central to southern mexico)
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-temple mayor
-Tenochtitlan (zoo) -evidence of military with classes of warriors within -sacrifice -writing system and codices |
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Human sociopolitical history
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For the large majority of human history, we lived in simple societies (bands and tribes)
In A.D. 1500, less than 20% of the world’s land was marked as territory or property of state-level societies Today, everything except Antarctica the process: 1. Social complexity Egalitarian ---> Social distinctions 2. States -Bureaucratic gov. -Formal social control |
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people give up egalitarianism for
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protection and specialization
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how ppl gain power
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ideology, resources, technology
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where did complex societies first appear?
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-in 5500 BP in mesopotamia
but...later arose independently in egypt, indus valley, china and mexico |
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preconditions for arise of states:
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-sedentary, stable communities with surplus of food and other materials
-agriculture important, but not necessary |
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surplus allows for
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larger population, frees ppl to specialize in other things
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complexity arises from
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population; interaction of food production, population growth, social complexity
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theories about how first states arose
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-Leisure Theory
-Hydraulic Theory -Population Pressure Theory -Coercive Theory |
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leisure theory
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-Sedentary farming allows people more leisure time
-Time to invent things… including the state Problems: -Not all farming societies turn into states -Farmers work more hours than foragers |
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hydraulic theory
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-Complex societies arise in arid regions
(Need irrigation to feed people Need complex organization to run the irrigation system) Problems: -Several examples of complex irrigation systems without state-level organization |
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population pressure theory
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-Food resources cannot keep up with the population growth
-Chaos would ensue without higher organization of food production Problems: Evidence for states arising in areas of food abundance |
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coercive theory
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-Result of warfare
(In areas with little available land for agriculture Populations grow and compete Larger political units develop to control conquered areas) Problems: -Relies on population pressure and some states arose in areas of abundance |
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conclusions about arise of states
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-No “prime-mover”
-Each case is unique -No one theory covers all cases In some cases, several of the causes may have been driving the move to a state |
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environmental reconstruction history
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Not a focus of archaeology until Processualism
Goal: Reconstruct the past environment and understand people’s place in nature Culture is partly our adaptation to our surroundings so understanding our surroundings helps us to understand culture |
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environmental archaeology areas of study
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Soils science and geochemistry
Geoarchaeology Archaeobotony Zooarchaeology |
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geoarchaeology
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Study of the processes of earth formation
-Soil and sediment patterns important because: find sites, how adapted |
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scales of environmental reconstruction
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Global:
Need to understand the big picture El Niño events and societal stress Coastlines Regional: Variations in the global trends Resources available to groups Local: Microenvironments Resources in immediate vicinity to a group |
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climate reconstruction
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dendroclimatology
ice cores speliotherms sea bed cores |
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dendroclimatology
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Tree rings = record of growth conditions
Rainfall patterns Temperature patterns Natural disasters Signature ring series: Large-scale events that effect trees over a large region |
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dendroclimatology used at
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Jamestown colony to determine drought years
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ice cores
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Global patterns
-Snowfall -Temperature -Natural disasters (Volcanic eruptions) Not as accurate as tree rings! |
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speliotherms
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-Stalactites and stalagmites
-Annual growth rings -Oxygen isotopes Provide information on atmospheric conditions (Precipitation Temperature) |
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sea bed cores
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-Sedimentary record
-Layers and composition (Sediments and remains of tiny organisms) Foraminifera (Marine protozoa) -Coiling direction can indicate temperatures -Oxygen isotopes -Changes in species |
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other methods of environmental reconstruction
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Diatoms-
Temperature and salinity Leaf Cuticle and crystals- Moisture Plant species Animal species |
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landscape reconstruction
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Coastal regions
Isostatic uplift (continent raises up) Glaciated regions (created valleys) Past conditions Glacial environments Rivers Important resource zones Movement over time |
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reconstructing plant communities
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palynology
other microbotanicals macrobotanical remains wood animal feces |
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palynology
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Pollen and spores
Gives a regional picture of plant communities Look in soil (scanning electron microscope) Charcoal Gives the fire history of an area (ppl burning areas, how frequent is it) |
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other microbotanicals
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fossil cuticles (blades of grass, etc)
phytoliths (tiny plant cells) plant DNA (baskets, residues in pottery, etc) |
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macrobotanical remains
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fruit, seeds, tubers
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wood and animal coprolites
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wood- species identification
animal feces-micro and macro remains |
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reconstructing animal communities
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Microfauna
Small vertebrates and invertebrates best indicators of climate and environment (narrow env. range) Macrofauna Evidence: bones, teeth, tissue, and blood |
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human impacts on the environment
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Burning
All groups; all subsistence practices, direct animals Terracing In rugged terrains Irrigation Dry environments |
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Aztec chinampas
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raised up fields in lakes, most productive agricultural strategy
settlement construction: causeways, roads |
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Hohokam
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1-1450 CE
-Farming in an unpredictable environment -Stretched resources during a time of drought Over-irrigated --> Salinization of the soil |
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Easter Island
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-Deforestation (pollen falls out of record)
-Over hunting and fishing -->Species extinction -Cannibalism -Collapse of Society |
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subsistence
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-includes anything involved in human survival
Food, shelter, fuel, medicine -"How we get food" |
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nutrition
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requirements for growth and maintenance
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menu
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what resources are available in the environment
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diet
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what is consumed from the environment
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cuisine
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culturally distinctive food practices
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hunting/gathering
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-Exploit wild plants and animals that already exist in the natural environment
-Composes the large majority of human history (96%) Archaeologically: associated with bands; seasonal camps, sparse record, wild food remains dominate |
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domestication
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-Around 12,000 BP, people began domesticating plants and animals
-->Led to significant changes in our diet and way of life definition: human interference with reproduction of another species |
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domestication is a slow process
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-Cultivate/herding first, then domesticate (Transitional phases)
-Foragers have great knowledge of plant and animal species -Not all species being used were domesticated |
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centers of independent domestication
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middle east, mexico/c america, s america, africa, 2 centers in china, eastern us
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how can we tell when plants were domesticated?
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-differences in morphology
(seeds getting larger, coatings get thinner, overall plant morphology) |
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how can we tell when animals were domesticated?
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-morphological changes (smaller cow bones when domesticated)
-geographic distribution changes -abrupt population increase -changes in age/sex in a population (more females for milk, etc) |
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Pastoralism
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-Domesticated animals
-Highly variable -Animals are socially important (social/economic currency) archaeologically: small seasonal settlement, sparse record, signs of animal domestication, animal remains dominate |
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swidden agriculture
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-simplest form (slash and burn)
-supplemental wild foods -tend to be tribes/chiefdoms archaeologically: more permanent settlements, slightly more intact record, signs of plant domestication, variety of food remains |
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agriculture
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Domesticated plants and animals
High investment, High return -tend to be chiefdoms/state level societies arch: permanent settlements, proliferation of culture (diverse record), plant/animal remains (domesticated) |
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swidden agriculture vs agriculture
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swidden is extensive, garden plots
agriculture is intensive, monocrop fields |
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changes with agriculture
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Sedentism
(Need to be near crops) Population increase (More stable food supply) Social distinctions (More people, more need for social control) --> Eventually, complex political organization Less healthy? |
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HG vs farming
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compared to HG, early farmers shorter in stature/more diseases
modern relevance (paleo diet) |
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diet is difficult to reconstruct because
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vegetables don't preserve well
proportion is hard to determine |
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macrobotanical remains
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Seeds and nuts
Plant fibers Carbonized remains Impressions (make sure people used it, food processing gives clues, like if seeds are burned then they were eaten) |
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microbotanical remains
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-phytoliths
-pollen grains (can inhale, problematic in determining diet) |
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how were plants used?
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Seasonality: when plants were collected
-Can tell by maturity of remains Based on comparisons with modern specimens By knowing when plants ripen, we can tell what people were eating at particular points during the year |
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animal bones
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want evidence of cutting (association is not enough)
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what animal bones can tell us?
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Hunting techniques
Kill sites Seasonality How? MNI Minimum number of individuals (min number of individuals necessary to account for the bones) NISP Number of indentified specimens (raw number of identified bones per species) |
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other animal evidence
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Birds
Bones, feathers, eggshells, etc Fish Scales and bones Mollusks Shells |
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what tools can tell us about diet?
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-Residues
-Plants (Phytoliths, pollen, and DNA on pottery and stone tools) Animals (Blood, tissue, and DNA on stone tools and cooking vessels) Tools themselves: Projectile points, fish hooks, fishing nets, digging sticks, hoes |
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what human remains can tell us about diet?
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Stomach contents
(Bog bodies, wet sites, mummies, and flotation of soil beneath burials) Feces Dry or wet sites Teeth (Wear patterns) Bone isotopes (Carbon isotopes) |
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other evidence for diet
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written documents, art, preserved meals (very rare)
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experimental archaeology
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Recreating past technologies, gives though process, mental development, learn how done
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ethnoarchaeology
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Study modern cultures to learn about similar past cultures
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materials science
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Understanding the physical properties of tools
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what do we want to know about tools found?
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how made/what made with? what used for?
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preservation
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Certain materials stand the test of time much better than others
(stone blades but wooden handle not found) This may present a biased picture of the total toolkit that people used |
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must used experimental archaeology with tools to learn how...
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stone breaks, wood/bone splits
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raw material types
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unaltered and synthetic
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unaltered
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Changes in shape or form may occur, but no change in state
ex. Stone Wood and plant fiber Animal products Plant extracts |
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synthetic
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Marked by a “change of state”
(Usually by heat treatment) ex. Pottery Metal Glass and Faience |
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olduwan tools
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earliest evidence of human technology, 2.4 million years old, found in Africa
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stone tools
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Flaked stone tools
Core Flakes (debitage) Hammerstone Biface Uniface |
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Acheulean tools
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1.4 million years old (only in Africa and later Europe and W. Asia)
-tear drop shape, multi-functional tool |
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First wooden tools
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400,000 years old, found in Germany
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Levallois tools
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200,000 years ago, flake around core, knock flake off as tool
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Upper Paleolithic tools
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UP time period begins 50,000 years ago and tools go until 5,000 ago in Europe and until colonization here
-More sophisticated and efficient (more blade area, thin/sharp edges) More materials used (bone and shell now used too) Use of exotic material Non-utilitarian items Art |
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upper paleolithic sophistication evidenced by
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groundstone tools, bone tools (needles, fish hooks), houses, animal products, plant fibers, glues and extracts
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pyrotechnology
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controlled use of fire
(ovens, kilns, metal working) |
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pottery
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raw material: clay
inclusions (temper) - material added to clay to improve its strength and workability (prevents cracking during firing ex. crushed shell, rocks, pottery, sand, grass, volcanic ash, etc |
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non-ferrous metals
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copper, lead, silver and gold
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bronze appears
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3300 BCE
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iron appears
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Old World around 1000 BCE
-Early production in China -Not in the New World! |
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steel appears
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in roman times
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faience is...
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pre glass (quartz)
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glass appears
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2500 BCE in Mesopotamia
-Roman expertise Not often found because usually remelted and reused |
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economy
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def. how people obtain foodstuffs, materials, and goods to sustain their lives
(Includes utilitarian and luxury items) |
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trade
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the movement of goods
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exchange
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includes the social relationships that come with the goods
-often involves material remains, but info and ideas likely moved along same routes |
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reciprocity
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The exchange of goods and services between two parties without the use of money
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3 types of reciprocity
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positive- gift giving (close members)
balanced- equal exchange negative- try to take advantage (between groups) |
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redistribution
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Goods are sent to an organizing center and then redistributed
(usually chiefdoms) |
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market exchange
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Goods and services are bought and sold with price negotiation
-Currency |
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market
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specific location for exchange, usually centrally located except for ports
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currency
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not all prehistoric markets used standardized currency; Aztec used jade beads and cacao beans (no set value)
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prestige goods
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not for general exchange; only for elites/special situations
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commodities
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everyday utilitarian, much more widely exchanged
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acquisition
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want to know origin, whether it is direct or traded?
so, look for evidence of production |
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production
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identify specialization vs non-specialization or part-time specialization; look for the existence of workshops; part-time specialization is indicated by workshop used part of the year
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specialization
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Determining the amount of specialization in an economy is important because it can tell us about:
-Reliability of food production -Level of sociopolitical complexity -Nature of social relations -Amount of competition for land |
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distribution
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-Look for exotic artifacts
-Spatial analysis of artifacts (fall off curves) |
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3 types of exchange
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reciprocity, redistribution, market exchange
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recognizing markets
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central, open space, evidence of large population
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consumption
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who uses specific goods, household archaeology
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discard
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site formation processes
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study of past economic systems
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-very difficult to reconstruct the whole exchange system
-Without written records, we need detailed info from many sites and a clear understanding of the mechanisms of exchange |
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eastern exchange network
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Hopewell culture
(Eastern North America 200 BCE - 400 CE) study by: -sourcing of materials -excavation of numerous sites IL and OH Hopewell traveled to engage in direct procurement and traveled through river valleys |
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cognitive archaeology
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The study of past ways of thought from material remains
(concerned with symbols, ideas and ritual life) |
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ideology is perhaps most difficult part of culture to study because
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it is easy to misinterpret or put bias into, and there is a lack of preservation
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we can learn about ideology through
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1) ethnoarchaeology (ppl in same area)
2) written documents 3) association, patterns 4) interpretation of symbols by past ppl |
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symbol
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something that represents something else
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symbols are essential to culture because
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Organize the world around us
Communicate Store information over time Express abstract ideas |
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symbols are two things
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Arbitrary
There is nothing that specifically relates a symbol to what it represents Agreed upon They work because the members of a culture agree upon the meaning of symbols |
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in what ways were symbols used?
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Territorial markers (marking territory/important places)
Measurement (calendar, length, weight) Planning (community planning, cosmic alignment of settlements) Social organization (class-prestige goods, money), ethnicity (style, cuisine) Supernatural beliefs (Religion- Not always displayed in material culture Difficult to separate the religious from the secular) |
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recognition of ritual
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1) Focusing of attention:
Locations specifically used for ritual Look for redundant symbols Look for uniqueness of the location 2) Boundary between this world and next (cenotes, for example) 3) Presence of the deity (Images or representations, sometimes animals) 4) participation and offering (sacrifices) |
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evidence from burials and its relevance in belief in the afterlife
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Certain objects are key indicators:
Food Sacrifices Artifacts only found in burials but...Objects are not always indicators of a belief in the afterlife (ex. utilitarian items) |
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goal of prehistoric archaeology
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reconstructing past cultures/past ways of life
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historic archaeology
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study of human behavior through material remains, for which written history in some way affects its interpretation
done primarily in North America and Australia, study of colonial and post-colonial peoples |
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proto-historic
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in N America: Period of time when European artifacts appear at Native American sites before recorded appearance of Europeans
in Europe: Groups appear in other’s texts |
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Historic archaeology often involves working with written documents but do archaeology because...
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1) ethnocentrism
2) wealth bias 3) documents give an incomplete picture |
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type of sampling usually employed in historic archaeology
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non-probabilistic
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artifacts looked for in historic arch
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Ceramics
Styles, construction techniques can tell us a lot Glass Bottles, windows Metal Tools, weapons, decorative items |
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other things looked for in historic arch
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Buildings
Foundations Privies Human remains Burials and associated items |
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historic arch tends to be post-processual in nature
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-ideology, individual
-dealing with known events, tough not to have bias (more current) |
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historic arch focuses on
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marginalized groups, questions unanswered by history
ex. colonialism and its effects (Annapolis, MD) |
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Jamestown
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-well-documented but...documentation mostly from ppl like john rolfe and john smith
-original struggles never understood (malnourished, murder, accidents, tobacco use) |
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Monticello and mulberry row
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approach to the main house at Monticello, slave/artisan/IS/laborers' houses and workshops line it, four above ground structures remain;
1. homes along mulberry row contain pig, cow and deer bones suggesting use of meat in stews 2. ceramics dating 1770-1800, indicating hand me downs from the house 3. "negro quarters" with multiple families and thus multiple subfloor pits transitions around 1790 to smaller, more modest houses for one family with more privacy and own home (example of Critta Hemings) |
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NY African burial ground
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1626-dutch bring over slaves
1664-goes to british rule, africans were 40% of pop and wre put to work on building colonial new york 18th century law prohibited burying them in Manhattan's churchyards so burial group other side of wall street buried 10-20,000 between 1712 and 1790 -construction for GSA building at 290 broadway --> the discovery, five year research program by Dr. Blakey -he found from analysis of 400 some individuals that half died before age 12, with another peak in mortality 15-20, enlarged muscle attachments (physical labor), cranial and spinal fractures (excessive loads carried on head and shoulders), and no hypoplasia in adults (led lives free of malnutrition and severe disease in Africa); English 8x more likely to live past 55 than them |
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Custer's last stand
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-has been glorified and sensationalized by newspapers and paintings, like that commissioned by Adolphus Busch and sent to saloons around the country
-indian warriors who survived give very different picture (more bloody carnage, show it more as confusing confrontation, no glorious last stand) -arch shows that final part of the battle took place in the ravine and then custer was caught completely off guard, giving way to confusion chaos and death (men clustered together as indians surrounded them); no .45 on the hill (no time to use their revolvers or reload them) |
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Blackbeard's shipwreck
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Underwater and historic archaeology
The Queen Anne’s Revenge Blackbeard’s ship? 1000s of artifacts Cannons Bell Wood samples (europe) Ballast Stones from Caribbean |
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clans
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a group of matri or patrilineages who see themselves ad descended from a common ancestor
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moieties
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two groups of clans that perform reciprocal ceremonial obligations for one another; moieties often intermarry
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ascribed status
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rights, duties and obligations that accrue to individuals by inheritance
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achieved status
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rights, duties and obligations that accrue to individuals by virute of what htey accomplished in their life
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egalitarian societies
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all people have nearly equal access to the critical resources needed to live
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direct acquisition
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a form of trade in which a person goes to the source area of an item to rocure the raw material directly or trade for it or finished products
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exotic
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not produced locally/raw material not found locally
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down the line exchange
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exchange system in which goods are traded outward from a source area from group to group, producing a decline in the item's abundance in arch sites farther from the source
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ritual
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a succession of discrete behaviors that must be performed in a particular order under particular circumstances
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La Belle
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matagorda bay excavation by use of cofferdam; amazing array of finds, including the hull of the ship, three bronze cannons, thousands of glass beads, bronze hawk bells, pottery and even the skeleton of a crew member.
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