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231 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What are the 6 characteristics of a civilization? |
1. Elaborated political/religious power 2. Clear social ranking 3. Planned public architecture 4. A group of highly specialized craftsmen 5. Control and active participation in inter-regional trade networks 6. Complex intellectual achievements, e.g. codified iconography for permanent recording of certain concepts/events |
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City: V. Gordon Childe |
Concept of a city is notoriously hard to define |
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City: Horace Miner |
Everyone knows what a city is, except the experts |
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City: Sociologists |
Cities are places - that is, specific locations in space that provide an anchor and meaning to who we are |
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City: Spiro Kostof |
Cities are defined by population density, "places where a certain energized crowding of people takes place" and "cities are places where there is a specialized differentiation of work - whether people are craftsmen of soldier -- and where wealth is not equally distributed among citizeens" |
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City: Collin Renfrew |
Argues to avoid making ideal category of city,, noting that there are many different kinds of cities |
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Elements of definition #1 |
Heterogenous people, occupations, crafts, classes and statuses |
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Elements of definition #2 |
Diverse political, social, religious, economic and administrative buildings, institutions, wards, personnel, etc |
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Elements of definition #3 |
Dense packing/crowding of residential/non-residential structures |
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Elements of definition #4 |
A monument core of unique buildings, e.g. cathedral/temple |
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Elements of definition #5 |
Skyline/city profile that shows maximum bulding height at the centre of the city |
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Elements of definition #6 |
A central focus - sacred/administrative/governmental center |
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Elements of definition #7 |
Special organizational features, e.g. grid-like modules (city blocks, streets, walls, barrier walls, canals, sewers, parks, public squares) |
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Where are the earliest constructs of cities? |
West Asia |
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Origins of the city: V Gordon Childe |
Cities arise in areas where irrigation agriculture occurred (near rivers) as this allowed for the production of surplus food; and the surplus of food production enabled full time specialists (people who didn't grow their own food) |
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What drove people to make cities? |
For promotion of religious state (via cosmograms, geometric figure depicting cosmology), for safety, legitimiation of new sociopolitical institutions, etc |
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What are the motivations for migration to cities? |
Safety from raiding, concentration of diverse functions/services/activities of urban center |
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Mesopotamia |
- Greek: "mesos" = middle + "potamos" = river - Land between tigris/Euphrates rivers - Not within "Fertile Crescent" - Desert area that the "Fertile Crescent" arcs around |
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UBAID PERIOD (Earliest well-represented period in S. Meso) |
- Eirdu site, S. Iraq - Series of temples built atop one another, dedicated to water God Enki, who was offered fish - Priest/administrators oversaw societal ffairs - Buried contained grave good, e.g. liard head figurines |
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URUK PERIOD (First urban sites appear) |
- Uruk (modern day Warka; Erech in bible) is the oldest known city in the world; grew around central temple precinct (built from limestone, bitumen) and surrounded by city wall - Spaces are wall defined (temples, admin, worship, work and housing) - Core of Uruk = complex called "Eanna precinct"; dominated by massive temples/open courts |
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Who was worshipped in the Uruk Period? |
Inanna, goddess of war/love |
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EARLY URUK PERIOD What are some of the innovations in the Early Uruk Period? |
Population rise, city states, complex economy/exchange networks, importing of copper/gold/stone/wood, plow/wheel cart, and a potter's wheel for mass production of ceramics |
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EARLY URUK PERIOD Other traits of the Early Uruk Period |
- Long distance exchange (ship along rivers/canals) - Centralied storage/control of trade goods in each city's temple - Trading colonies in foreign places |
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MIDDLE URUK PERIOD Traits |
- Appearance of mass-produced bevelled-rim bowls, made by pressing into a crude mold; this managed economy - Appearance of cylinder seals used to "sugn" transactions/demonstrate ownership, source of pictographic info regarding form of upper tempes - Spread through long-distance trade |
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LAKE URUK PERIOD Most important temple |
White temple; atop the Anu Ziggurat at Uruk |
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LATE URUK PERIOD First ziggurats |
Rebuildinig of temples had resulted in tall platforms with temples on top |
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LATE URUK PERIOD PRE-CUNEIFORM |
- Earliest example of writing in Eanna temple precinct (s. Meso) and Tell Brak (n. Meso) - Found in storage areas, dealt with accounting goods in storage/payments/lists of workers - Made by scratching lines on clay tablets representing tokens/objects |
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LATE URUK PERIOD CUNEIFORM |
Developed by Early Dynastic Period; trend showed signs of becoming less pictorially representative as speed/familiarity with signs developed; used to mark ownership and placed on seals |
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EARLY DYNASTIC PERIOD (Series of city states developed in s. Meso) Traits |
- Use of cuneiform marks beginning of historic period - Hyper urbanism; villages abandoned for city - S. Meso divided into (1) Sumer, South and (2) Akkad/Agade, North - Indie city states develop, each controlling agriculture/pastoral lands - Still have similar material culture - Nomadic pastoralists still present - Appearance of palaces and hereditary kings - Language of texts = Sumerian |
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EARLY DYNASTIC PERIOD Royal Graves at Ur |
Deep shaft tomb with chamber for king/queen (Queen Puabi Shubad found surrounded by bodies of female attendants) had grave offerings and male/female attendants that died unwillingly in ritual killing with sharp instrument - Woman buried with elaborate headdress = Queen Puabi |
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EARLY DYNASTIC PERIOD Warfare/expansion |
Common, but extent of violence was limited because liited war tools - used carts, axes, spears, arrows -War was more to display power |
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EARLY DYNASTIC PERIOD Mesopotamian society |
Clear separation of wealth/privildge among members (seen in clohting/hairstyle) |
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AGADE PERIOD (Akkadan empire) Sargon of Agade |
-King - Succeeded in conquering N/S Meso. - Forges first regional state with well equipped army - Established system of control, awarded captured land to his supporters, put local agents in charge of conquered cities, suported by a garrison of soldiers |
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AGADE PERIOD Control disintegration |
Due to 300 year drought |
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Egyptian writing |
- Hieroglphys - Familiar symbols that appear in formal inscriptions on tomb walls - There's also the development of cursive hands/shorthand for casual writing |
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The Nile |
- Resourceful - Everyone/everything grouped along the Nile, making transportation simple (everyone had boats |
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Travelling on the Nile |
- Downstream sailing = with the current - Upstream sailing = against the current, have to use prevailing Northernly winds |
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(Egypt) Building and reubuilding |
- Communities tend to be built upon one another on flood plain - Lots of recycling materials for rebuilding/mixing previous occupations - Early communities are buried under meters of silt/below the water table |
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Emphasis on Pharonic succession |
- Prominent sites are associated with temples/mortuary complex/Pharohs - Remarkable dry preservation in tombs and dazzling wealth - Early writings concerned a "king lists" |
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PRE-DYNASTIC EGYPT |
- Early settlements on upper (southern) Nile - Low density populations (Egypt = civiliation without cities) - Specialized site functions: admit, cult craft production, military centers; all closely tied to agriculture - No Mesopotamian contact - Competition for agriculture/assets led to conflict/socio-economic inequality |
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DYNASTIC EGYPT (~3100BC) |
- Different elite figures were rivals for power - Egypt was possible origin of Meso. - Idea of Egyptian state/sacred head ruler (Pharoh) originated in the Nile Valley (specifically, Hierakonpolis) |
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DYNASTIC EGYPT Hierakonpolis (aka Nekhen) |
- Surrounded by mud brick walls - Densely packed, rectangular, mud-brick houses - Elaboraton suggest social differentation - Large cobble stone foundation = possible palace/temple/admin center - Best known for burials/prominent wall paintings |
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DYNASTIC EGYPT Hierakonpolis burials |
- Higher status = elaborate burials; rectangular with underground chambers - Highest status burials = have "mastabas" or bench-like rectangular bounds built atop the burial, e.g. "the painted tomb" for an Upper Egyptian chief/ruler |
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DYNASTIC EGYPT Hierakonpolis paintings |
Consisted of boats, hunting/fighting men, tied up captives, animal holdinig (like the Mesopotamian hero Gilgamesh) - may be influenced by Meso. as they don't describe real Egyptian events |
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Manetho |
- Egyptian historian - Wrote that a king of Upper Egypt, "Menes", founded a unified kingdom of Egypt and established new city, Memphis, to be capital - Archaeological evidence = growth of Memphis @ end of pre-dynastic period |
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Palette of Narmer side 1 |
- Found in the temple of Hierakonpolish, probs the capital of Upper Egypt - One side shows Narmer with white crown of Upper Egypt (bowling pin), smiting a victim - Hawkheaded Horus stand on top of papyrus marsh (representing Lower Egypt?) - Image depicts Upper Egypt dominating Lower? |
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Palette of Narmer side 2 |
- Shows Narmer with red crown of Lower Egypt (spiral and chair), reviewing decapitated victims - Below, a bull breaks into a walled town and tramples a victim - Narmer was probs Menes |
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Chronology of Dynastic Egypt (Palermo stone) |
Based on fragmentry stele that lists kings of the 1st through 5th dynasties - Made by Menes - Documents 3000 years of history from Menes (1st Pharoh) to the conquest of Egypt of Alexander in 332 BC - Each dynasty marked a succession of hereditary kings (dynasty ends when there is no hereditary king to continue that dynasty) |
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EARLY DYNASTIC (ARCHAIC) |
- Dynasties 1 - 2 - Began with the political unification of Upper/Lower Egypt - Cities: Hierakonpolis, Elphantine, Memphis - Royal palaces came into use, distinguished by writing kings inside a "serekh" (stone representing palace facade) - King is religious, was a combo of ritual/secular functions |
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EARLY DYNASTIC Burial places |
- Buried in either Abydos (upper) or Saqqarain (lower); kings/nobles were buried in either - found a "cenotaph" (empty tomb) |
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Step pyramid |
- First pyramid was built at Saqqaara by Djoser; famous "step pyramid" - Designed by Imhotep - Marks first use of limestone for building - Had large burial chamber system below, nearly 6km, where kings would be buried |
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Rosetta stone |
- Development of Egyptian writing: hieroglyphics - Inscription of a document in 3 languages: hierogplyphic, demotic (late form of Egyptian writing) and GreekHi |
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Hieroglyphic origins |
- Suggest appearance of hieroglyphs occurred soon after pre-cuneiform in Sumer, but is too different to have been derived from such - Read left to right, but can be re - Read left to right with signs reversed - Recorded only consonants, no vowels - Invented by single individual after encountering Meso writing |
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Power of king |
- Tightly linked to concept of ma'at, which combines virtues of balance/justice/cosmos - King controlled state through agency of armies of scribes |
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OLD KINGDOM |
- Dynasties 3 - 8 - Age of great Pyramids |
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Great Pyramids |
- When Pharaoh died, the sun's beams would create a celestial stairway/ramp by which the pharaoh could ascend to the heavens and the pyramids symbolied such - Pyramids were part of 1 larger pyramid complex with 14 distinct architectural components, including: subsidary/satellite pyramids, pyramid enclosure walls, mortuary temple, causeway, pyramid city for workers, boat pits, pyramid harbour |
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The pyramids |
- Mortuary architecture = predynastic period - Earliest royal tomb = tomb of 100 (Hierakonpolis, predynastic): depicts figure smiting enemy - Shed light on knowledge of math/astronomy, surveying, quarrying, transport, engineering, architeccture, building methods, stone masonry - Orientated true north - Supported work force and specialists in construction |
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Saqqara and Dahshur Pyramid Sites |
- Third dynasty shift for burials - First pyramid constrcuted by king Djoser at Saqqara - First true pyramid was build by King Snefru, 4th Dynasty at Dashur |
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Giza Pyramid Site |
- Apex of pyramid building - 4th dynasty kings, Cheops, Cepheren and Mycerinus built there
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AMARNA - New kingdom site in Upper Egypt |
- Founded as new capital by king Akhenaten - After Akhenaten's death, Amarna is abandoned |
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(Giza) 4th Dynasty Pharaoh Khufu (Cheops; son of Snefru) |
- Built largest of Giza Pyramids - Burial chamber inside, not beneath pyramid - Shows evidence that Khufu viewed himself as Re - His pyramid was part of an extensive complex including: mortuary temple, pathway to another temple in the Nile, 3 small pyramids for queens, pit with boats |
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(Giza) 4th dynasty Pharaoh Khafre (son of Khufu) |
- His pyramid complex includes the sphinx (represents his face, removed nose because it was morally wrong to depict faces) - Largest/most complex in Egypt |
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(Giza) 4th Dynasty Pharaoh Menkaure |
His pyramid is - originally 73m high - now 62 m high - 109 m at the base |
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FIRST INTERMEDIATE PERIOD |
- Dynasties 9-10 - Dissolution of power of Old Kingdom Dynasty may be due to drought that gave Nomarchs power, who maintained water systems for agriculture and oversaw food production/distribution; they became Pharaohs - Two separate power bases 1. Theban dynasty ruled the south 2. Herakleopolitan dynasty ruled the north |
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MIDDLE KINGDOM |
- Dynasties 11-14 - Classic period of Egypt - Mentuhotep II of Thebes defeated northern dynasty and reunited egypt - Rules for half a century: made infrastructure, consolidated borders, built fortifications > also wanted to expand middle eastern trade > developed complex irrgation at Faiym Oasis which was a successful attempt to increase agricultural production/reliability; an effort towards national unity - Collapsed at high flood years, Nomarchs regained power |
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SECOND INTERMEDIATE PERIOD |
- Dynasties 15-17 - Hyksos ruled in Lower Egypt at Avaris - Nubians established kingdom of Kerma - Egyptian capital = Thebes - Eventually reunited under Ahmose |
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NEW KINGDOM |
- Dynasties 18-20 - Marked by military power, a Pharaoh investment - Extended control into Syria/Nubia - 18th dynasty Amenhotep IV (Akhenaten) attempted to replace tradtional gods with a single god, the sun of Aten (monotheism) - Capital = Amarna |
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Mummy of Ramesses II |
- Most powerful of all pharaohs - Firmly held ideas about life after death caused great care to be taken with preservation of bodies of both rules/others (made mummies, which helped us understand health/diseases of ancient Egyptians) |
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Petrographic analysis |
- Branch of geology that focuses on the identification of minerals/rocks on the basis of their physical properties - used to identify the origin of an artifact - Applied to study of diplomatic letters discovered in the New Kingdom Egyptian city of AmarnaM |
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Mason/Cooper |
Found petrography provides info about techniques used in ceramic manufacture - in many cases, potters added mineral clay - were able to identify product for different workshops; identified place of origin |
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Tutankhamun |
- New kingdom - Son of Akhenaten and Nefertiti? or brother of Akhenaten? - Golden coffin found in the Valley of the Kings - Content of coffin has shed light on Egyptian culture - Genetics showed: inbreeding in Tutankhamns lineage, causing genetic walking disease Kohler and there's evidence of malaria |
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INDUS VALLEY |
- NW portion of South Asia - Indus river system drains the runoff from the Himalayas - Enormous annual fluctations in volume; causes unpredicatble large-scale flooding (though occur June-Sept)
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Basic chronology of Indue Valley |
1) Neolithic 2) Mehrgarh I 3) Mehrgarh II 4) Mehgarh III 5) Early Harappan (Early Indus) Period 6) Mehrgarh IV-VII (Mature Harappan/Late Harappan Period) |
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Indus Valley Neolithic |
- Earliest occupations were temporary and people were nomadic - Domesticates = wheat, barley, sheep, goats, cattle - Robert Wenke: Wheat/sheep came in Baluchistan - Mud brick architecture - Copper use/wheel-made pottery |
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Indus Valley Mehrgarh |
- Site: Mehrgarh - Edge of indus river system; transition between steppe/uploands |
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Indus Valley Mehrgarh I |
- Mud-brick houses - Agriculture: wheat, barley, dates - Grain harvesting: Used sickles/grinding stones - Domesticates: Cattle, water buffalo, sheep/goat - Rare copper/lead pendant |
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Mehrgarh II |
- Cotton appears - Box buildings for storage? - Foundations for buildings with wooden plank floors - Few burials with ornaments (lots buried ith infants) -Long dstance trade: indicated by turquoise beads/conch shells from Arabian sea) - Lapis sals from Afghanistan |
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Mehrgarh III |
- Trade increases in turquoise, lapis, conch, other stones - Increased use of copper - People may have settled in the plains |
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Early Harapan Peod |
- Increase of uniformity of cultures overtime - Indus plains begin to be settled by farmer - Rise in population - Agriculture: wheat/barley/lentils/peas/cattle, sheep, goats and water buffalo - Use of sickle blades with sickle gloss - Agriculture towns near rivers - Rectangular mudbrick houses - Site: Rehman Dheri (town); some had raised citadels, probably for grain storage, ceremonial or admin building; many sites were walled - Crafting: pottery(kot dijian)/copperworking |
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Kot Dijian Ceramics |
- Displays "horned deity": key feature of later Indus ideology, suggests that it had already been awarded iconic status |
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Kot diji |
- Settlement of the Early Harappan period - Rivered flwed through it - Defensive wall: lower part built of stone, upper part built of mud brick; protected against animal/flood/disease - Pottery srtyle developped
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Harappa |
- Has 4 separate walled mounds centered on a central depression - Has rectangular granaries |
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Kaliban |
- Rectangular mudbrick walled site - Standardize brick size 3:2:1 - Some pottery similar to kot dijian - Bronze Age city is ell represented by a citadel mound to the West and a lower town compound to the east - Earlier setlement under the citadel=proto-urban town followed the exact same plan |
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Mature Harappan Period |
- Appearance coincides with: Royal Graves at Ur, early days of Old Kingdom in Egypt - Declines shortly after the appearance of the Imperial (third) Dynasty at Ur and before the beginning of the Eyptian Middle Kingdom - Drastic change from Early Harap as many sites were fired, so they were reconstructed more orderly - Mixed pottery style - Coexisting pottery styles suggest Harappan ppl moved into regions with own distinctive style; also possible conquest/trade interest/colonies? - Domesticad indian pig - Seals depict domesticad Indian elephants |
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Mature Harappan innovations |
- Rise of big cities/complex settlements: Harappa, Mohenjo-Daro, Ganweriwala, Rakhigarhi - Many other secondary sites (Kalibangan, Kot Diji, Sandhanawala, etc) - Special purpose sites - Lothal was a port/trade/manufacturing center - Stone bead/bronze/ivory workshop |
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Lothal |
- Factory fort during the Bronze Age (India) - Presece of bead factory suggest locally available semiprecious stone was collected/processed on site before being transported to the main cities |
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Mature Harappan remnants |
- Highly uniform artifacts, city planning, architecture - Standardized styles of pottery/jewellery/seals/brick size and portions |
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Standardized measures |
- Length units: several graduated rules have been found - 2 basic units : "cubit" = 52cm, "long foot"=33.5cm - Ruler is divided into subunits of 1.7mm, each 10th mark emphasized
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Standardized weights |
Weight system: cubical weights of various stones; basic unit = 13.6 grams (1/2 ounce); come in sets of 1 unit, 2, 4, 8, 16, 32 and 65 (then multiples of 16) - May be associated with exchange - Balances may have been used |
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Interpretation of standardized weights/measures |
- Centralized production of standarized goods that were then widely distributed - Strong control of production in many different places in order to ensure standardization - Extreme cultural conservatism that let ppl to make things in the same way even w/o formal controls - An ideology that promoted conformity |
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Mohenjo-Daro |
-Large site, raised/rectangular mudbrick platform running north to south - Consistent in shape, about 2x as long as wide - Had citadel to west, typically enclosed by a walll with big corner buttresses/bastions - Large structure on top of admin buildings |
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Granary |
- Located on citadel or next to - Elevated solid brick base with crossing channels on top, hints of a wooden superstructure and a ramp-like enterance (loading dock) - Built to allow air flow underneat to prevent rot/spontaneous combustion
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Mohenjo-daro courtyard |
- Filled with rows of pillar to hold up roof - Sunken rectangular bath, wide steps leading down into it - Has a drain - Filled with water carried from a large well in an adjacent room - Used for ritual bathing |
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Writing |
- Mostly known from seals, but undeciphered - Writing may have had a different primary purpose - Probably only labels identifying names/offices/places/contents |
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Mature Harappan social stratification |
- Egalitarian -Granaries suggest accumulation of vast stores of wealth - No royal tombs - Metals/jewelry are rare in burials, though found under house caches |
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Mature Harappan religion |
- Parallel with later Indian beliefs suggest Indus religion may have been the origion of Hinduism - Ritual cleanliness - Priest figure with garment off one shoulder; indication of piety - Seals show a "Lord of the Beasts" figure, possible early version of Shive god |
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Mature Harappan political organization |
- Assumed to represent one or more state - Mohenjo-daro or Harappa would be capitals -Kalibangan, Kot Diji would be secondary centres - Many ppl lived in tiny hamlets/farms |
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Mohenjo- daro massacre? |
- Illustration that the end of Indus civilzation was brough by an invasion of Indo-Aryan speakers - But reinterpreted as peaceful mass burial - Belief that there was a continuity, rathan than contrast between Bronze/Iron age |
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Late Harappan (decline) |
- Did not suddenly disappear - Several sites in Baluchistan burned around the end of Mature Indus - Sprawled skeletons may indicated warfare - Possible plague Harappa had final stylistic phase, indicating foreign influence, maybe from Iran - Cities were permanently abandoned |
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Pompeii |
- Best known archaeological sites on earth - Buried by eruption of Mt. Vesuvius in AD 79 - Created record of organic materials that do not normally perserve
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Pompeii: Miscoonceptions |
- Not a major city in the world - Coastal trading port, but relatively small - Not buried catastrophically without warning by an eruption, most people fled beforehand |
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Pompeii architecture |
- Had side walks, businesses offering goods/services, families lived above business - Parking/hitching post for horses - Cross walks (raised stones) - Street signs/numbers - Amphitheatre with box seats - Signs have pictures instead of a language because diversity of demographic
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Pompeii activities |
- Political events posted onto building (posters) - Plumbing/daily hygiene fseen in latrines/lead pipes leading places - Gymnasium for body/mind training - Courtyard for physical training - Spa - Health club: swimming/roman baths - Brothels |
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New World equivalent to Pompeii |
Ceren de Joya in El Salvadoris, stopped by catastrophic event (volcanic eruption) - Not large city, small village |
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Coastal Late Preceramic sites |
- Huaca de los Sacrificios: First construction up to 200 years older, before the first Egyptian pyramid |
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(Coastal late preceramic sites) Huaca de los Idolos characteristics |
- Central room divided by a wall with "clapboard" pattern molded on outer surface, t-shaped doorway - Next to it, separate system of hallways |
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(Coastal late preceramic sites) Offerings |
- "Idolos" are 13 intentionally broken figurines found in one of the niches - "God's eyes" - Colourful "feather arrangement" |
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(Coastal late preceramic site) El Paraiso |
- Dates to end of coastal preceramic and into next period; 2 million needed to construct - 58 ha complex with mounds up to 3 stories high - 9 complexes of stone buildings - Central court with red clay floor/painted walls and four 1-meter diameter fire pits around sunken central area (100000 tons of rock can fill it) |
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El Paraiso Monumental Architecture |
- Not residential - Big labour mobilization without any sign of elite/state rganization; could've been executed via "cargo", when people are assigned a task and rotaating capable people through offices of leadership (avoids building permanent status hierarchy) - Mainly used for ritual |
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Initial Period |
- Depend more on irrigated crop product - Began making ceramic vessels (for boiling starchy crops) - Regional pottery suggests lots of small self-sufficient groups
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(Initial period) U-shaped mound complexes |
- 20 major u-shaped complexes known - u-shaped arrangement of central and flanking mounds with inferior plaza - Stairay up center front, forming dramatic enterance - Huaca la Florida: 6.7 million person-days |
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Initial Period Social stratification |
- Some elite but not but were not buried with fancy stuff (at top of main mound at Cardal, lived in ordinary houses) - Weak social stratification (supports cargo system or acquired wealth) - No large settlements |
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End of Initial Period, beginning of Early Horizon |
- Coastal ppl started to grow maze, introduced from highlands - Pottery/textle style chanes - Highlands also bring >collapse of u-shaped temple > Las Haldas: stairway plastering job |
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Cardal |
Painted clay and straw mannequin/deity left laying on the main staircase |
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(Early Horizon Cavin de Huantar) Original Old Temple |
- U shaped platform with sunken circual court - ringed by low relief carvings - Honeycombed with corridors, drains, niches, tiny rooms |
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(Early Horizon Cavin de Huantar) Lanzon |
- In very center, in a cross-shaped gallery - Hole over the lazon = Used for speaking? - Analogy to Pachacamac where the Spanish observed such a "speaking" deity in action |
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(Early Horizon Cavin de Huantar) New Temple |
- Built by adding onto the Old Temple - Sunked rectangular court aligned in front of it - Additional galleries, stairways, may have permitted ritual specialists to appear/disappear from view or to put on a show for people |
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(Early Horizon Cavin de Huantar) Art (decorative sculpture) |
- May show shamans/priests transforming from human to animal form (represented by heads) - Possibly assisted by hallucinogens - Visitors are met with images of jaguars/mythical figures |
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The Setting and the Temple |
- Temple interior had maze of narrow passages, at the intersection of 2 galleries there's a meter high shaft made of granite known as Lanzon, carved in the form of a fanged human deity - Temple immersed visitors in sensory experience (entered whilst drug-induced trance state) |
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Early Horizon trade |
- Increasing evidence of trade - Camelid meat brought in as dried jerky - Marine shell/fish boned from the coast - Increasing obsidian trade and Spondylus shell from Ecuadorian coast - Shell bead/wood/hide workshop |
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Early horizon social stratification |
- Houses closed to the temple = higher status - Only gold artifact around in residential area - Higher fraction of young llamas among bones - People associated with temples lived better |
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Chavin influence in distant regions |
- Iconography/technology is widely dispersed - Chavin-like centres in the highlands - Cache of painted textiles from a tomb at Karwa on the Paracas peninsula - Drug paraphernalia on the coast: small, decorated mortars and pestles, decorated bone tubes, bone/metal spatulas and spoons |
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Staff God, Raimondi Stone |
- Displayed to large groups - Drawing of the supernatural being, holding a ceremonial ceremnial scepter in each hand |
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End of the Early Horizon |
- Regional interaction faded - Ordinary residence were built among/over the ceremonial structures - Ended of sacred use of places that had been for ritual centres - Local styles of pottery developed - Gradual change in iconograph - Widespread construction of hilltop fortresses |
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Paracas Mummy Bundle |
- Placed in large basket in a seated position, Parcas elites were accompined by finely embroidered garments/head gear and ornaments of gold and shell
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Early Intermediate Period |
- Period of cultural florescene - Development of cities/states, large scale irrigation systems allowing populations to move inland along river valleys - Moche and Nazca on the coast - Recuay/Pukara in highlands - Common warfare |
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Early Intermediate Period Crafts |
- Extremely high quality - Metal work - Textiles - Ceramics |
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Nasca |
- Culture developed in the narrow Nasca/Ica valleys in southern coastal Peru - best known for Nasca Lines, or large atterns they created on desert floor |
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Nasca drawings/ceramics |
- Included humans/animals/large number of straight lines that stretch the desert for miles - Line are believed to be the pathways walked along in ritual processions e.g. rain ceremonies - Suggested animals held great meanings |
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Nasca: Cahuachi |
- Largest known site, ceremonial or pilgrimage centre - Consists of forty mounds interspersed with large enclosures - Uncovered ceremonial objects e.g. caches of panpipes, engraved gourds, textiles, llama burials - Where polychrme pottery was produced |
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Moche State |
- Flourished on the north coast - Well known for decorated/elaborate pottery depicting daily life - Excellent metal working (soldering, depletion gilding aka tumbaga) |
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Moche affairs |
- Military was essential to social hierarchy; major goaal was to provision victims for ritual sacrifice - Discovery of murals at the site of Huaca Cao Viejo shows line of prisoners/sacrifical scenes > actual human remains found near Huaca de la Luna |
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Moche Art |
Composite of 3 fine-line drawing scenes show 1] fox hunting 2] combat between elite warriors; priestess carry the chalices to a paramount "warrior priest" who consumes the content w/ a small dog 3] deity battling a fish monster |
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Moche Ceramics |
- Showed amazing detail of people/animals/behaviours - Famour for erotic scenes |
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Moche tombs |
- Tomb of the Lord of Sipan; actually a series of elaborate, undisturbed royal tombs - Original find was tomb of a warrior-priest |
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Andean Empired |
- The Inca are best known Andean empire - By middle horizon there were 2 empires: [1] Wari (Huari) in the North and [2] Tiwanaku in the South |
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Wari |
- Controlled highland/coastal Peru - Capital = Ayacucho - Used terraces to increase agriculture production - Culture was known for plaster-covered walls of rough stone - Monumental architecture = cloisted/compartmentalized |
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Wari Architecture |
- Grand compounds with high enclosing walls - Interiors used large halls referred to as Galleries - Largest center = Pikillacta - Near later Inca city of Cuzco |
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Tiwanaku |
- on the plains of Lake Titicaca - Capital of a large empire and contained largest platform in the southern Andes - Megalithic stairs lead to the Kalasaya gateway, framing large anthropomorphic stelaTw |
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Tiwanaku affairs |
- Controlled mountains of southern Peru, along with Bolvia and northern Chile - Near lake Titicaca - Ruling class built temple mounds for public ritual display - Known for stonework, e.g. masonry |
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Tiwanaku architecture |
- temple platform of Puma-Punku; stone blocks up to 100 tons fitted together perfectly w/o mortar - Large stelae - Portals were of great ritual significance - Gateway of the Sun features lintel depicting rows of winged being converging on a central figure, holding staffs |
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Staff God at Tiwanaku |
- Gateway of the Sun - Exhibits the Chavin de Huantar "Staff God"
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Similarities between Tiwanaku/Wari |
Adopted the same pantheon, changing twin staffs to corn stocks - Both empires collapsed when the climate turned drier |
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Chimor |
- 2nd largest empire of the Andes - Known for ethnohistoric/archaeological sources - Capital = Chan Chan, metroplis - Founded by Taycanamu - Controlled southern Ecuador tonorth of Lima, Peru; 2/3 of irrigated desert land |
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Chan Chan |
Prosperous coastal lords lived in spacious walled compounds - Majority of citizens thought to be crafts people, weaves, metalsmiths who lived/worked in thatched structures - Rulers lived in Citadels > U-shapedC |
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Chan Chan artifacts |
- Wood models portray entrance processions of priests/sanctified hunchbacks leading llamas/warrior captives to be sacrificed before noble mummies |
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Inca (Tawantinsuyu) Empire |
- Took over Chima - Thrived for over a century under royal Inca capital city, Cuzco - collased after Spaniards kidnapped/murdered Atawallpa, the emperor |
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Cuzco |
- Built by man named Sapa Inca Pachacuti; an Incan emperor > transformed kingdom of Cuzco into vast empire - Shape of city is possibly an effigy of a puma/mountain lion - Had fort-like temple called "Sacsahuaman" |
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Inca Empire affairs |
- Allowed local groups to continue traditional practices; limited resistance to Inca rule - But they suppressed elements of local relgious practice Inc |
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Inca's offering to the gods |
- Consumable items e.g. camelids, beer, cloth - Golds/silver - Sometimes people |
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Deceased Emperors |
- Power of Incan rulers continued after death - Emperor would be mummified and still played active role in Cuzco life - Food was burnt in front of the mummies and, through mediums, they communicated their wishesP |
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Panaqa |
- Deceased emperor with economic power - His panaqa was the propety amassed by the emperor during his lifetime passed down to descendants - New emperor had to build his own fortune - Most famous royal estate part of a panaqa = Machu Picchu |
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Machu Picchu |
- Built as an estate for Emperor Pachacuti - Referrred to as the 'Lost City of the Incas" - Sacred or "Illaqta" economy powerhouse? - Built with polished dry stone wall - 3 primary buildings, in the sacred district 1] Intihuatana 2] Temple of the Sea 3] Room of 3 Windows |
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Communication in the Empire |
- Relay messengers stationed every 6-9 km; covered 240km/day - 1000 tampu roadside stations serving as admin centres |
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Khipu |
Used to record info - system of knotted strings to record information instead of writing a system - suggests they were used for calculations/problem solving |
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Inca Conquest |
- Conquered by Spanish due to weapon superiority and fatalistic attitude of Inca |
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Popul Vuh |
- Maya religion based on document called "Popul Vuh" - Creation myth of highland Maya, created by Spanish friars |
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Regional variation of Popul Vuh |
- Likely only represents one local version of the creation myth of Maya - Latter sections are K'iche-specific, including lists of important local families |
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Popol Vuh stories |
- Protagonists often play many roles in the opul vuh, making it hard to follow - Playing the sacred ball game throughout Mesoamerica and as far as north America - The hero twins are also ball players |
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Ball Game |
- Similar to soccur but can't kick ball - Teams must pass ball through hoop - Lose the game = killed? |
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Defeat of the lords of Xibalba |
- Hero twins find father's ball player equipment - Twins were too loud, were summonded to play ball to a scoreless draw - They learned how to sacrifice victims and bring them back to life - They eventually defeated the lords |
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Popul Vuh and Archaeology |
- Michael coe founddepictions of characters from Popul vuh on Maya ceramics - El Mirador depicted 2 gloated heads that could be the hero twins |
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Cosmic Tree |
- Saw everything connected: underworld, middle world, underworld - Cosmic tree bears physical resemblance to Christian cross - We live in center in the middle world - Sometimes depicted as a crocodile (visible from the sky, aka Wakah Chan) - Created own trees, Stelae |
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Popol vuh and Astronomy |
- All Maya myth based on astronomy - Oldest story seen in Maya myth is the laying of 3 hearth stones |
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Popul Vuh system of Astronomy- |
- Associated different part of sky with different beings - Milky way = canoe paddling across sky, overtime it sinks and transforms into a crocodile/world tree - Maya divided sky into constellations representing different figures |
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Maya architecture |
- Emphasied mass to create large buildings/enormous - Pyramids are not solid bcuz other pyramids are in it; lots of rooms - Open space also is important - Follows basic plan set out in houses |
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Maya development |
- May have used grids (like streets) - cities developed from core outward/ground up
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Art: Chert (flint) |
- Chert is fine grain used for making ulitarian tools - Also produced eccentric lithics commonly encountered in rituals |
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Art: Obsidian |
- Obsidian = volcanic glass made for stone tools - Ulitarian/eccentric ritual tools
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Art: Murals |
- Early depictions are usually of gods/mythical scenes - typically monochromatic or minimally polychromatic |
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Bonampak |
- Controlled by Yaxchilan - Famous for elaborate murals; depict victory shred by rulers Yaxchilan, Bonampak and Lacanha - Murals belong to Yahaw Chan Muwan, ruler of Bonampak |
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Maya writing |
- Most scripts are written in Ch'olan > this may have acted as a pan-Maya elite language - Glyths are phonetically based - Mixed system using both phonographs/glyphs for syllables/vowels - phonograph = glyphs that represent entire word |
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Maya orthography |
- Variety in spelling conventions allows for same wrd to be written in a variety of ways - multiple logographs, a logograph wth a syllable, entirely from syllables |
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Maya math |
- Numerical system consisted of 3 symbols - a dot for 1 - a bar for 5 - variable sign for 0 (commonly shell) - Base 20 system |
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Maya calender |
- 260 days, 20 named days and 13 numbers - Found in Tzolk'iin - Intermeshed with solar calender (Haab): 365 day year, 18 months, 20 #'d days+ 5 day month at the end - Tzolkin+Haab = calender round; 18980 day cycle, 52 vague years - More than 52 years = long count, begins in classic period |
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Late Preclassic |
- Site: Kaminaljuyu (KJ), probs a ceremonial centre/trade crossroad from highlands to Pacific COast - Trade of the trade Quetzal feathers - KJ Also controlled El Chayal obsidian - KJ may have been affiliated woth or controlled by Teotihuacan |
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El Mirador |
- Largest preclassic centre - Connected to Nakbe by causeway (or sacbe) - Had many pyramids/complexes (tallest=El Tigre) - Danta Complex: cluster of buldings w/ giant pyramid - Abandoned but reoccupied during Late Classic |
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Tikal |
Largest, most powerful centre of Early classic period - Construction began on the North Acropolis and Mundo Perdido complexes |
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Great Jaguar Paw |
Chak Tok Lch'aak I (Great misty claw) best known early ruler - presided over Tikal during early stages, associated with Mundo Perdido - Long distance trade between Highlands/Central Mexico |
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Tikal Rulers/Dynasties |
- Ahau is the maya word for lord; equivalent to King - first Ahau at Tikal is called "Scroll Ahau Jaguar"; He's on stela 29
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Tikal: North Acropolis |
Huge platform, supporting numerous buildings - Early classic construction - Functioned as necropolis for early Tikal rulers |
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Entrada |
- Means political takeover/military conquest - New lord called Sihyaj K'ahj (fire born aka smoking frog, stela 15) arrives at Tikal > traveled via San Pedro Martir River - Replaces ruling house with that ofTeotihuacanitself |
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Spearhrower Owl |
- Introduced by entrada - Known from the Marcador [stone banner with glyphic text describing the entrada], discuses Spearthrower owl's accession to rulership (not known where, may have ruled Teotihuacan) |
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Uaxactun |
- North of Tikal - Independent - Earliest monument = portrait of a ruler |
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Tikal vs.. Uaxactun |
- January 16 is recorded at both Tikal and Uaxactun - Records of a new ruler at Tikal, Yax Nuun Ayiin I or 'Curl Nose' > may have been due to marriage bcuz evidence of blood letting/sacrifice > maybe war |
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First Caiman |
- possibly ruled Uaxactun - his tomb contains mixture of lowland maya/central mexican stuff -burial part of why the 3 polities formedd alliance |
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First Caiman and Stormy Sky
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- Siyaj Chan K'awill II (Stormy Skin) was Caiman's son - Stela 31 - His tomb shows link with Teoihuacan and Kaminakjuyu (butterfly motif, common Teoihuacan art) |
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Tikal Allies |
Palenque/Copan |
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Tikal Enemies (Calakmul's enemies) |
Calakmul, caracol, dos pilas, waka, yaxchilian, quirigua |
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Yaxchilan |
- Smaller centre in Peten area - Famous for elaborate stelae/carvings - Has 2 emblem glyphss; joint kingdom rulership? - Works mostly introduced by Itzamnaaj Bahlam III/Bird Jaguar IV - Founder Yopaat Bahlam=First seated lord |
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Moon Skull |
- Builds Four Bat Place - His name in Mayan = spearthrowe |
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K'inich Tabu Skull II |
Assumes Yaxchilan title in 526 - comissioned series of lintels that constitute the king list tellqing us of the early history of Yaxchilan |
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Temple 44 |
- Itzamnaaj Bahlam III's war memorial - depicts capture of Aj "Nik", a sublord from Maan - Defeat by Piedras Negras is omitted |
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Temple 23 |
- Dedicated to Lady K'abal Xook, principal queen - Depicted 1] performing autosacrifice 2] conjuring warrior apparition 3] preparing her husband for military ritual |
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Tika's Hiatus |
- Marked by halt in erection of monuments - Warfare was the reason for the hiatus; Tikal was defeated by Caracol (Belize) |
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Caracol |
- South-central Belize - monument Altar 21: functioned as a center marker |
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Caracol/Tikal |
- Ruler of Tikal, Double bird, was probs sacrificed - Everything in Tikal tradition declines |
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Tikal Re-emerges |
Another king, Shield Skull, was captured. His son, Ah Cacao, took Tikal back, destroyed Stela 26, dedicated it to Great Jaguar Paw, stopped the use of North Acropolis for royal burials and reburied funeral shrine of Curl Nose. - Brought back old practices - Built a bunch of temples (Temple VI, has inscription that records principal events in Tikal) |
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Ah Cacao |
Takes Calakmul, but Dos Pilas/Caracol sides with Calakmul and angers Ah Cacao |
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Tikal Great Plaza |
South of North Acropolis - Framed by Temple I/IIC |
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Copan |
- Ballcourt and hieroglyphic stairway, part of the monument plaza gruping Coplan stela/altars > the stairway is the longest known inscription in Maya hieroglyphic writing - Dynastic sequence is well known@ Copan due to Altar Q: depicts each ruler of Copan sitting atop their name glyph |
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Quirigua |
- Center near Copan - Continued to erect monuments - most famous monument = Zoomorph P, known as the Great TurleP |
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Palenque |
- Best known complex = Palace, with famous tower - Palace is a labyrinth, series of vaulted galeries/rooms, interior courtyards and patios - The tower may be an observatory or place of prisoner sacrifice |
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Palenque: Temple of the Inscriptions |
- 9 Lords of the Night myth inscripted - Place of burial for Pacal, Lord Sun Shield. Ascended throne at age 12 > had lots of valuables - First Maya monument to have same funerary structure as Egyptian |
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Collapse of Palenque |
- Last monument from Maya was Tonina; an aggressive polity - Maya collapse characterized by cessation of the recording of historic events using the long count - Population declines, but Yucatan population increases - Major centres are abandoned |
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Features of MAYA Collapse |
1. Construction ceases at major centres in southern lowlands 2. Monuments with dates cease to appear 3. People appear to abandon major sites of Classic Period (could be population shift) |
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Terminal Classic |
- Stelae-altar complexes/hieroglyphic texts disappear - Decline of ceramics an sumptuous burials - Writing fell out - But codices were written till the Spanish came |
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Post Classic Centres: Chichen Itza |
Chichen Itza is partially Maya, some culture is from Tula (Central Mexico) |
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Toltecs/Tula |
- After decline of Teotihuacan, central Mexico was in political turmoil, filling the voice was major center Tula - Tula was the capital of Toltec empire |
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Tula |
- Benefited from Teotihuacan fall as ceramics/artifacts from Tula suggest many refugeess from Teotihuacan settled at Tula - Lsser city planning - Strong military presence with animal carvings (aka military orders) - Toltec influence economy/politics went into West Mexico and other south regions |
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tegration of Chichen Itza |
- Man named Kukulcan, Feathered Serpant, established his capital at Chichen Itza - Toltcs built a city at Chichen Itza diffrent in appearance from most Maya centres; incorporates Mexican/Maya styles - Statue Chacmool, seen with plate to recieve humans hearts (Toltec origin) - Tula modeled Temple of Warriors |
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Aztecs |
- Term Aztec is a misnomer, refers to people who speak languages of Nahua family (North Mexico and Southwest of USA) - Aztecs call themselves Mexico |
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Mexica |
- Lived on island in North of Valley of Mexico - Their god, Huitzilopochtli, told them to journey to the south and they arrived at the Valley of Mexico - Chose Lake Texcoco, foretold by an eagle on a cactus with a ribbon of smoke near beak - Their symbol (snake replacing smoke) is on the modern Mexican flag |
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Chinampas Agriculture- |
Aztecs lived in swampy areas, learning form of agriculture that employed swamps called "Chinampa" - Flat reeds were placedin shallow areas of the lake; allowed Aztecs to reclaim much of lake for agricultureH |
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Hydraulic Knowledge |
- Aztecs piped water from one area to another an dbuilt a dike to keep the salt water from eastern/northern parts of the lake system from ruining agriculturally suited fresh water in west/south |
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Aztec Calender- |
260 day calender, works with a 365 day calender to provide a 52 year cycle - Did not employ long count |
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Aztec Human Sacrifice |
- Usually captured soldiers from other polities - Typically led to the top of a pyramid, splayed over a stone and his heart would be removed while still beating - Practiced cannibalism due to lack of protein in diet? - Skulls were put on open display |
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Tenochtitlan |
- Mexica initially worked as mercenaries for city-state Culhuacan - Planned marriage between Aztec leader and Culhuacan princess went obad when the Aztacs sacrificed the woman, flayed here and wore her skin in a ritual > Led to banishment to the swamps of Lake Texcoco - Now Mexico City |
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Templo Mayor |
- Topped by twin shrines to Tlaloc, the rain god, and Huitzilopochtli, god of war/sun - Temple was rebuilt 7x |
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Tenochtitlan: Templo Mayor |
- Carving of Moon Goddess Coyolxauhqui |
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Aztec Triple Alliance |
- Tenochtitlan, Texcoco, Tlacopan > Tenochtitlan became dominant partnerA |
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Aztec Expansion |
- Aztecs used astute political alliances/fighting skills to increase power/influence - Ahuitzotl expanded their influence to far reaches of MesoamericaMont |
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Montezuma I |
- Son of Itzcoalt, solidified triple alliance - Responsible for construction of aqueduct system - Expanded empire into Gulf Coast, acquiring tropical goods like rubber
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Pochteca |
- Group of organized merchants travelling/trading throughout Mesoamerica - Helped spread influence of Aztecs, bringing new areas under control - Acted as spies |
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Aztec Empire |
- Provide first clear evidence of an Empire in Mesoamerica - Demonstrate flow of goods |
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Montezuma II |
Had lots of wealth/power, but his empire was fragile |
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European cum |
- At time of European contact, Tenochtitlan was largest city in the world - Hernan Cortes+friends arrived on mainland in March 1519, near Tabasco, Gulf Coast - Acquired woman mistress, Dona Marina who translated Nahuatl/Mayan |
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Europeans approaching Aztecs |
- Gained Native allies with sworn enemies of Aztecs - Massacred thousands in Cholula - Arrived at Tenochtitlan > Cortes native arm treated well, given gold |
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Quetzalcoatl |
- Feathered serpent would return in the guise of a light-skinned man with a beard > so Montezuma (ruler of Tenochtitlan) decided not to kill Cortez+crew > But Cortez held Montezuma hostage anywaysC |
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Noche Triste |
- During Toxcalt festival, a human sacrificed was made - Alvarado stopped the festival, killing Aztec priests/nobles, resulting in Aztec uprising - Cortez+men fled to Tlaxcala |
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Conquest |
- After Noche Triste, troops from Cuba helped Cortez lay seige to Tenochtitlan - Spanish finally succeeded in destroying Aztec empire when last Aztec ruler, Cuauhuac, was captured |
