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36 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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Imperato-McGinley et al
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- 4 children in Batista family in Dominican Republic.
- Raised as girls but turned into muscular men. - More than one family in the village had witnessed the change. - Common ancestor with a mutual gene. - Supports biological because upbringing did not prevent change suggesting only biological factors influence gender. |
Supports Genes/Chromosomes
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Durkin
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- If sex differences were due to biological differences, we would see differences straight from birth but there aren't any until about 1 year.
- Suggest biology determines appearance, upbringing determines behaviour. |
Challenges Genes/Chromosomes
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Young
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- Changed the sexual behaviour of male and female rats by changing hormone levels.
- "Reversed" sexual behaviour which was unchangeable. - Exposure had changed sexually dimorphic nucleus. - Suggests biological reasons, not socialisation |
Supports Hormones
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Ehrhardt and Money
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Girls who's mothers had taken synthetic hormones (precursors to male hormones) to prevent uterus bleeding and found girls were quite tomboyish.
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Supports Hormones
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Yalom et al
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Boys mothers who had taken female hormones were less boyish than peers and tend to engage in less rough-and-tumble play
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Supports Hormones
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Hamann et al
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- Found brains function differently through fMRI scans with sexually arousing photos.
- Men showed greater activity even though women reported more. |
Supports Brain Differences
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Wager et al
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- 65 neuroimaging studies of responses to emotional stimuli.
- Women did not show greater activation than men. - Suggests no differences between genders |
Challenges Brain Differences
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Eagly and Wood
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- Cross cultural study
- Found men and women fitted theory: men work/hunt + women look after children. - Supports evolutionary theory since it is cross-cultural. |
Supports Mating Strategies
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Kenrick et al
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Xavante hunter-gatherer tribe had similar sexual statistics to Western culture even though they hadn't been affected by culture.
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Supports Mating Strategies
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Mead
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- Conducted study on social groups in Papua New Guinea and found differences between tribes suggesting culture influences gender roles, not biology
- Some were aggressive, some where calm, some had reversed gender roles |
Supports Cultural Influences
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Hargreaves
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Found men and women roles in society varied between cultures suggesting division of labour is different between cultures.
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Supports Cultural Influences
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Williams and Best
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- Found universal agreement of male/female gender roles across cultures
- Men= dominant/independent - Women = caring/sociable - Same in children who have had little socialisation |
Challenges Cultural Influences
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Huston and Wright
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Found men outnumber women on TV and gender stereotypes are enforced (men=dominant, women=caring)
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Supports Media Influence
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Fagot and Leinbach
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18-48 months for 4 hours/week for a year and found gender reinforcement between peers. Teachers secondary to peers influence.
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Supports Peers Influence
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Lytton and Romney
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Found parents reinforced stereotypical gender behaviours through activities.
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Supports Parents Influence
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Schaffer
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- 200 adults shown video of 9 month old baby and told boy or girl.
- Asked to interpret behaviour when interacting with Jack in the Box. - Males were interpreted to be angry, females were scared. - Supports because it shows label has influence on interactions with child. |
Supports Biosocial
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Smith and Lloyd
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- Adults play with unisex dressed babies and told if boy or girl.
- Boys encouraged to play more independently and vigourously. - Girls were encouraged to be more dependent and treated more gently. - Supports because it shows the label changes others' actions. |
Supports Biosocial
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Reiner and Gearhart
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- 16 biological males born without penises and raised as females.
- All exhibited male tendencies and most returned to being male by 16 years old. - Challenges because it shows biology is more dominant. |
Challenges Biosocial
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Money and Ehrhardt
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DAVID REIMER
- Botched circumcision lead to loss of penis. - Raised as a girl called Brenda. - Began to feel masculine even after upbringing. - Returned back to male. |
Challenges Biosocial
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Rekers
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70 gender dysphoria males and none had biological problems but all lacked a stereotypical male role model suggesting social factors.
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Supports Gender Dysphoria + Biosocial
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Slaby and Frey
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- 55 children aged 2-5 years (none were at Gender Constancy stage)
- Tested gender labelling, stability and constancy. Later watched stereotypical models on screen. - High constancy children spent more time looking at same sex models. - Supports concept of gender constancy being completion of gender |
Supports Cognitive Development Theory
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Frey and Ruble
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Once at gender constancy children will play with gender related toys even if they seem less interesting
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Supports Cognitive Development Theory
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Martin and Little
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Preschool children follow gender stereotypes before understanding gender suggesting early recognition of gender stereotypes.
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Supports Gender Schema Theory
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Campbell
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From young age children have gender stereotypical preferences
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Supports Gender Schema Theory
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Bauer
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Boys are aware of gender matched scripts but not girls suggesting gender differences
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Challenges Gender Schema Theory
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Perry et al
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Children act without knowing suggesting innate factors not cognitions.
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Challenges Gender Schema Theory
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Role of Genes/Chromosomes
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- Female: XX
- Male = XY - At 6 weeks, a gene on the Y chromosome, SRY gene, causes gonads to develop into testes. No Y chromosome, no SRY gene and ovaries develop. - Testes and ovaries produce different levels of sex hormones which affect gender. - 6 months after birth, males have a surge of testosterone. - Testosterone doesn't just produce sex organs: also affects hypothalamus. |
- Imperato-McGinley et al
- Durkin |
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Role of Hormones
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- Hormone: a chemical produced by the body that affects cells and organs.
• Oestrogen and progesterone = females • Testosterone = males - Both genders produce both hormones, just different levels. |
- Young
- Ehrhardt and Money - Yalom et al |
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Brain Differences
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- Corpus Callosum: women have bigger gaps between hemispheres and so will have better control of using both sides at once.
- Brain hemispheres: left is bigger than right in men meaning they are better at logic and math whereas women are better at creative tasks. |
- Hamann et al
- Wager et al |
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Mating Strategies
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- Evolutionary theory argues differences based on reproductive success.
- Males cannot be sure of paternity so look for signs of fertility. - Females look for security and resources so use courtship to find partners. - Men look for short term (more sperm) whist women look for long term (limited/more investment) - Intrasexual selection: competition between males. - Intersexual: Female selection. |
- Eagly and Wood
- Kenrick et al |
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Culture
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Cultural relativism: the view that all beliefs are relative to an individual in their own social context - cannot fully understand culture unless immersed in it.
- Imposed Etic: whereby a culturally specific idea is imposed on another group. - Division of Labour: tasks traditionally performed by men and women and thereby socialise sterotypical views into children. - Other genders have come about in other cultures: • Mohave Indians have four: men, women, Alyha (men as women) and Hwane (women as men). • Thai Kathoeys are males dressed as females but behave in ways not associated with females. NOT females trapped inside male body. |
- Mead
- Hargreaves - Williams and Best |
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Social Learning Theory
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- Social Learning Theory states that behaviour is learnt through observation.
Attention, Retention, Production, Motivation. - Vicarious reinforcement: imitating due to attraction to reward. - Peers: • Harris and Durking suggest these horizontal relationships are more important than parents since they are more similar to the individual. • From early age, children seek like-minded peers who reinforce stereotypes and punish inappropriate behaviour. - Parents: • SLT states that children learn gender roles through parents since they are treated differently to suit gender stereotypes. • Gender specific toys and bedrooms reinforce idea. • SLT states that they are more likely to imitate same sex models. - Media: • Lobban considered British reading schemes and found half as many females as males and males being portrayed as more active suggesting stereotyping. • Children are influenced by what they read, watch and do. |
- Huston and Wright
- Fagot and Leinbach - Lytton and Romney |
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Biosocial Approach
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- Combination of both biological factors and social factors.
- Money and Ehrhardt believed that biology determines appearance of the child which leads to an appropriate label. This label determines the behaviour the child experiences which shapes their gender identity. |
- Schaffer
- Smith and Lloyd - Reiner and Gearhart - Ehrhardt and Money |
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Gender Dysphoria
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- Phenomenon that can be used to support Biosocial Theory.
- Experience of feeling uncomfortable with gender assigned at birth, - Sometimes referred to as transgender or transsexual. - 1 in 4000 receive medical help in UK - Supports biosocial because it shows that gender is not determined solely by biology. Biological explanation: prenatal hormone levels may be affected by genes. Right amount of hormones in short window to be fully masculinised. - Psychosocial explanation: • Parents of people with gender dysphoria reported they encouraged cross-dressing (mainly boys). • Conditioning could explain why it is more common in children: once grown up they will be punished for cross-gender behaviour. |
- Ehrhardt and Money
- Yalom et al - Rekers |
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Cognitive Development Theory
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- Idea of gender being learnt through interaction with environment: blank slate.
- Once gender has been identified, child will associate with other members and gain information about how to behave based on others' judging of behaviour. - Understanding of gender develops with age: • Stage 1: Gender labelling (1-3 years) - First understanding of own gender but incorrect labelling of others. • Stage 2: Gender stability (3 -5 years) - Understanding own gender is permanent but others is determined by superficial signs. •Stage 3: Gender constancy (by 7 years) - Gender is permanent regardless of changes. - Once at gender constancy the child will identify and cop same-sex models. |
- Slaby and Frey
- Frey and Ruble |
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Gender Schema Theory
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- Schema is mental representation of an aspect - template.
- Developing schema through interactions with environment - Children learn about what is appropriate for certain genders. - A more cognitive approach: - Children start to follow schema after 2 years. • In group schemas: attitude/expectations about own gender. • Out group schemas: attitude/expectations about other gender. - Motivates to follow In Group and not Out Group based on positives/negatives. - Happens before Gender Constancy. |
- Martin and Little
- Campbell - Bauer - Perry et al |
