Apr - General Review For The Cbe From Bonnie

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Probability Sample

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A scientific sample drawn in such a way that the probability of being chosen is equal or is known. A random sample is a good example.

With random samples, I find people struggle not with providing the definition, but with really understanding it. Random samples can be hard to create. If you stop every third person to walk through your door, that is not a random sample. Those people are preselected by entering that building on that day.

You have to think about the total population that interests you. Do every single one of them have the same chance to participate?

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Census

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Back: A 100 percent sample. Identify all the people in your universe and give each one an opportunity to respond. Especially useful with small well-defined populations. If your universe is under 300, consider a census.

I remember this one by thinking of the most notable census, the US Census. Its goal is to survey every single person in the US.

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Quota Sample

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Back: A nonprobability sample. Ex. In a school, find 10 elementary teachers, 10 middle school teachers, and 10 high school teachers. Any 10 of each kind.

Many people confuse this for a random sample, but it's not. It may be representative of your total population, but it's not random and can't be projected onto the entire group.

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Convenience/Accidental Sample

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Informal selection process. Provides nonprobability sample. Ex. Drop by the company cafeteria and ask questions of whomever you find there.

Hint: it's called a convenience sample for a reason.

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Formal vs. Informal Research

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Formal research uses the scientific method. The easiest way to distinguish is to ask does it have a random sample? And can it be reproduced?

On the APR exam, there will be questions regarding a number of research methods we use in PR. You'll need to know the relative strengths and weaknesses of each and you'll need to know if it is an example of formal or informal research. Informal research is not bad, or inaccurate, or less valuable than formal research. It's just different.

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Research

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Research is the systematic gathering of information to describe and understand a situation; check assumptions about publics and perceptions, and check the public relations consequences. Research helps define the problem and publics.
From my visits with many APR candidates, I find that research tends to be the most feared topic on the exam. It is a large portion of the questions, but once you start digging into the material I think most PR pros will find this is all things you know. You just have to learn how to talk about them in the right way.

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4 Defenses of Libel

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The four legal defenses against accusations of libel.
1. Truth: the burden of proof is with the plaintiff
2. Privilege: fair and accurate reports of public official proceedings
3. Fair Comment: on public figure
4. Retraction: a full and prompt apology

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5 Elements of Libel

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1. Defamation
2. Identification
3. Communication (Publication/Broadcast)
4. Fault (malice or negligence)
5. Damage (in absence of fault, provable damage or injury)

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Outputs

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Part of the evaluation concept of "out-puts, takes, growths and outcomes"

Short-term results of a piece. Focus is on how well org. presents itself and amount of exposure. Ex: placements or impressions.

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Outcomes

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Part of the evaluation concept of "out-puts, takes, growths and outcomes"

Long-term measure of effectiveness by focusing on changing opinions, attitudes and/or behavior as a result of a campaign.

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Outgrowths

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Part of the evaluation concept of "out-puts, takes, growths and outcomes"

Culminate effect of all pieces on positioning of org. in the minds of stakeholders.

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Outtakes

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Part of the evaluation concept of "out-puts, takes, growths and outcomes"

Measure of effectiveness focusing on audiences receiving, paying attention, understanding and then retaining and recalling.

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Front: Steps in Crisis Management (5)

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Back:

Determine type of crisis; response depends on type and duration.

Assign priorities based on urgency and likelihood.

Draft Q&A and resolutions for possible scenarios

Focus on what to do and what to say in the first hours.

Develop strategy to contain and counteract, not react and respond.
when crisis hits, that plan goes out the window. What will come in handy is a toolkit of key information and resources saved in multiple formats that you can access remotely: contact lists for key personnel and media, release templates (not the fill in the blank type, but simple masthead and boilerplate style), remote web server access and SM account passwords.

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Theory: 5 Stages of Adoption

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1. Awareness-general knowledge exists, but lacks details. (You've heard of the hoozeewhatsit, but you don't really know how it works or how it might fit into your life. )
2. Interest-information gathering. (You start seeing ads for the hoozeewhatsit, and some friends are talking about it. You get a better sense of its value.)
3. Evaluation-mental trial. (You begin thinking about how you might use it, what it might replace, how it could make things easier.)
4. Trial-experimental use. (You take a hoozeewhatsit for a test drive, maybe borrow one from a friend. You may even go ahead and get one of your own if it's free or not cost-prohibitive. But you're not completely sold just yet.)
5. Adoption-continued use. (The hoozeewhatsit has stood the test of time. You are fully on board and loving your newest innovation adoption.)

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Theory: 5 Characteristics Promoting Adoption

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1. Relative Advantage-does this innovation do something better than what I am already using?
2. Compatibility-does it fit in with my current activities/needs/life
3. Trial-ability-is it easy to experiment with it? Can I try it out?
4. Observability-can I see other people use it? How does it work for them?
5. Complexity-how hard is it to understand/learn/implement?

Think about the latest gadget or activity you really bought into. Maybe it was a different cell phone or a fancy kitchen gizmo. Chances are, several of these characteristics had to come together before you really adopted whatever it was

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Planning: 10 Components of a Plan

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Back:
1. Goals-desired end results
2. Audience-groups with whom you communicate
3. Objectives-phrased in terms of audience, outcome, attainment level, and time frame
4. Strategies-how in concept objectives will be achieved
5. Tactics-how to use resources to carryout strategies
6. Activities-specific actions to perform tactics
7. Evaluation-how you know if you achieved an objective
8. Budgeted Items-out-of-pocket expenses
9. Materials-what will be produced or purchased
10. Time Table & Task List-who does what when

For the purposes of the exam you need to know all 10. Remember: "Great Aunt Olga Sometimes Tells Alice 'Eat more buttered toast!'"

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Trends: "Mutual Adjustment" Era

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~1950 on
Post-war era, 1945-65: We moved from a war-oriented economy to a postindustrial service-orientated economy. PR became an accepted and professional organization.
Global Information Society, 1965 on: Multiple technology communication channels are developed. We shift from a national economy to a world economy. PR focuses on mediating conflict and building mutual adjustment.

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Trends: "Mutual Understanding" Era

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Back: post-WWI
WWI period, 1917-19: focused on promoting patriotism
Booming 20s, 1919-29: shift to promoting products, change, politics and charities
Roosevelt and WWII, 1930-45: dominated by Roosevelt and his counselor Louis McHenry House
Bonus: Louis McHenry Howe is an important figure in the history of PR. He was Roosevelt's adviser until 1936. He realized that mutually beneficial public relationships could be built only by coupling responsible performance with persuasive publicity.

As we enter the "Mutual Understanding" era, we start to see a shift to a two-way communication model.

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Trends: "Public Be Informed" Era

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a.k.a. "Seedbed Era" 1900-1917

This era is characterized by muckraking journalism countered by defensive publicity.

It was a relatively brief time frame in the history of PR, but the industry turned a corner here and began morphing into the more information-based industry we have today.

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Trends: "Public Be Damned" Era

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Post Civil War to 1900

This era is characterized by early attempts to manipulate public opinion.

Examples: Samuel Adams, the Federalist Papers, B.T. Barnum "There is a sucker born every minute."

Bonus: Samuel Adams is an excellent example of early American PR. In the late-1700s, he used variety of tools to manipulate public opinion. His organizations included Sons of Liberty and the Committees of Correspondence. He excelled at employing symbols, slogans and staged events.

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Crisis: 8 Types of Crisis

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1. Natural-Acts of god, fire, flood, earthquake, etc.

2. Technological-Can range from breakdowns to technological attacks

3. Confrontational-Based in discontent, examples include picketing, boycotts, sit-ins

4. Malevolence-Criminal or extreme methods are used to express anger, such as product tampering, kidnapping, or terrorism

5. Skewed Management Values-Most often, this means management get greedy and stakeholders suffer

6. Deception-Information is concealed or misrepresented

7. Management Misconduct-The illegal or unethical behavior of management impacts the organization, examples are sexual harassment or embezzlement.

8. Business and Economic-Financial or business factors damage the organization's reputation, such as bankruptcy, layoffs, product shortages, etc.

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Trends: Benefits of PR

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Back:
To Management
develop and maintain relationships with audience
anticipate and respond to shifts in public perceptions and opinions

To Society
make information available
mediate conflict and build consensus
help complex society make decisions

I think often we focus too much on the value of PR to management. As I point out in some of my posts on ethics, PR at its root is a public service. The public is just as much a client as the organization paying us, and we have benefits to both parties.

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Law: Foreign Registration Act

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All persons working as foreign agents (govt. company, or political party) must register within 10 days with the US Attorney General and report under oath every 6 months the names of foreign interests working for, activities carried out and how they spend their money.

the law section of the APR exam is difficult, because if a particular law doesn't effect your corner of PR then you are unlikely to be familiar with it. On the other hand, there are only a dozen or so laws you really need to remember

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Terms: Publicity

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Disseminating purposefully planned and executed messages through selected media, without payment to further the particular interests of an organization. ex. Submitting a press release to the local paper announcing an upcoming fundraiser. publicity by definition is free.

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Law: Defamation

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Communication that hurts someone's reputation, must be untrue. To be defamed or damaged one must prove hatred, contempt, ridicule.

Written or pictorial defamation is known as libel; spoken or verbal defamation is known as slander and need not be spoken in a public setting.

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Key People: Samuel Adams

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In the late 1700s, used a variety of tools to manipulate public opinion.
Organizations included Sons of Liberty, Committees of Correspondence
Utilized symbols, slogans and staged events.

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Research: Communication Audit

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Informal, Primary
Pros=accesses alignment with organizations goals, comprehensive evaluation of tools, independent evaluation of plans.
Cons=costly, need thorough definitions and plan, labor intensive, combines the cons of focus groups, interviews and content analysis.

clearly define what you are going to include: set the time frame: one month, one year, since the beginning... look only at items you produced, distributed to certain audiences or through certain media, or include items produced by outside sources such as news stories or user-generated content.
use a communication audit in the research stage of revamping an existing plan,

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identify statements as being an opinion, a belief, a value, or an attitude.

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Let's take the issue of gay marriage. I think gay marriage should be legalized. This is my opinion; I've mentally made this judgment. That judgment is based on a belief (since it is not a proven fact) that people are born gay, and a personal value placed on equal human rights. All of this is tied up in my general attitude (a feeling about things) that being gay is ok.

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Terms: Public Relations

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1. The various activities and commuications that organizations undertake to monitor, evaluate, influence and adjust to the attitudes, opinions and behaviors of groups/individuals who constitute their publics.
2. Helping an organization and its publics adapt mutually to one another.
3. Systematic communication of an organization with its publics.

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PR Code of Ethics: one of 6 provisions.

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Provision 1: Competition
PRSA says: Healthy & fair competition among professionals preserves an ethical climate while fostering a robust business environment.
Bonnie says: Play nicely with others

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PR Code of Ethics: one of 6 provisions.

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Provision 2: Conflict of Interest
PRSA says: Avoiding real, potential or perceived conflicts of interest builds the trust of clients, employers & the publics.
Bonnie says: If it looks like a duck and sounds like a duck...

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PR Code of Ethics: one of 6 provisions.

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Provision 3: Disclosure of Information
PRSA says: Open communication fosters informed decision making in a democratic society.
Bonnie says: No lying by omission.

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PR Code of Ethics: one of 6 provisions.

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Provision 4: Enhancing the Profession
PRSA says: PR professionals work constantly to strengthen the public's trust in the profession.
Bonnie says: If you don’t look good, we don’t look good.

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PR Code of Ethics: one of 6 provisions.

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Provision 5: Free Flow of Information
PRSA says: Protecting & advancing the free flow of accurate & truthful information is essential to serving the public interest & contributing to informed decision making in a democratic society.
Bonnie says: Your actions should do nothing to bias or alter the flow of open communications.

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PR Code of Ethics: one of 6 provisions.

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Provision 6: Safe Guarding Confidences
PRSA says: Client trust requires appropriate protection of confidential & private information.
Bonnie says: Know how and when to keep a secret

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One of 6 Core Values of PR

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Value 1: Honesty
PRSA says: We adhere to the highest standards of accuracy & truth in advancing the interests of those we represent & in communicating with the public.
Bonnie says: Don’t lie. Don’t lie to your client, don’t lie to your colleagues, don’t lie to the media. Just don’t, ever. Period.

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One of 6 Core Values of PR

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Value 2: Independence
PRSA says: We provide objective counsel to those we represent. We are accountable for our actions.
Bonnie says: Don’t be a lapdog. You are hired to be a counselor, an adviser. You are not hired to blindly go along with what your client wants you to do.

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One of 6 Core Values of PR

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Value 3: Loyalty
PRSA says: We are faithful to those we represent, while honoring our obligation to serve the public interest.
Bonnie says: Don't screw over your client. The best interests of your client are always a top priority. They are putting a lot of trust in you, and your commitment (of lack of) to them can have huge impacts.

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One of 6 Core Values of PR

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Value 4: Expertise
PRSA says: We acquire & responsibly use specialized knowledge & experience. We advance the profession through continued professional development, research & education. We build mutual understanding, credibility & relationships among a wide array of institutions and audiences.
Bonnie says: Remain credible. You do this by applying the things you’ve learn, like the four-step process, by being able to articulate why we do research and evaluation, by continuing your professional development and by maintaining good relationships.

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One of 6 Core Values of PR

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Value 5: Advocacy
PRSA says: We serve the public interest by acting as responsible advocates for those we represent. We provide a voice in the marketplace of ideas, facts & viewpoints to aid informed public debate.
Bonnie says: The public is always your client. My favorite definition of public relations is “building mutual understanding between a client and their publics.” At its core PR is a public service.

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One of 6 Core Values of PR

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Value 6: Fairness
PRSA says: We deal fairly with clients, employers, competitors, peers, vendors, the media & the general public. We respect all opinions & support the right of free expression.
Bonnie says: Don’t be a jerk