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250 Cards in this Set

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At the Congress of Vienna, the Austrian representative Prince Metternich pursued the policy of legitimacy, meaning
wishing to restore legitimate monarchs on their thrones, preserving traditional institutions and values
After Napoleon's defeat, the Quadruple Alliance
restored the old Bourbon monarchy to France in the person of Louis XVIII
The Congress of Vienna
created policies that would maintain the European balance of power
The foreign minister and diplomat who dominated the Congress of Vienna was
Klemens von Metternich
Klemens von Metternich
believed European monarchs shared the common interest of stability
Conservatism, the dominant political philosophy following the fall of Napoleon
was exemplified by Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France, emphasizing the dangers of radical and "rational" political change.
At its most elementary Burkean level, conservatism
sought to preserve the achievements of previous generations by subordinating individual rights to communal welfare
The Congress of Vienna was most successful at
establishing an order that managed to avoid a general European conflict for almost a century
The most important factor in preventing the European overthrow of the newly independent nations of Latin America was
British naval power
The Greek revolt was successful largely due to
European intervention
When protestors of high bread prices in England clashed with government authorities, the resulting conflict was known as the
Peterloo Massacre
By 1815, following the Congress of Vienna, the Italian peninsula
remained divided into several states subject to the domination of other European powers
The growing forces of liberalism and nationalism in central Europe were exemplified by the
Burschenschaften, the student societies of Germany
The Karlsbad Decrees of 1819 did all of the following except
dissolved several smaller German states
Following the death of Alexander I in 1825, Russian society under Nicholas I became
became a police state, as the czar feared both internal and external revolutionary upheavals
The argument that population must be held in check for any progress to take place was popularized by
Thomas Malthus
Which of the following statements best applies to David Ricardo?
He developed the idea of the "iron law of wages."
The foremost social group embracing liberalism was made up by
the industrial middle class
J.S. Mill's On the Subjection of Women stated that
men and women did not possess different natures
Central to the liberal ideology in the nineteenth century was
an emphasis on individual freedom
The growing movement of nationalism in nineteenth–century Europe
was radical since it encouraged people to shift their political loyalty away from existing states and rulers
The utopian socialists of the first half of the nineteenth century were best characterized by
Charles Fourier, who envisioned cooperative communities called "phalansteries."
In the July revolution of 1830,
Louis–Philippe succeeded Charles X as king of the French
King Louis–Philippe in France
cooperated with François Guizot and the Party of Resistance against the Party of Movement
The most successful nationalistic European revolution in 1830 was in
Belgium
The primary driving force in the revolutions of Belgium, Poland, and Italy in 1830 was
nationalism
The Polish national uprising of 1830 was crushed by
Russia
Which of the following statements best applies to Thomas Macaulay's thoughts on reform in Britain?
He supported reforms as a means of prevent more radical revolutionary movements
The Reform Bill of 1832 in Britain primarily benefited the
upper middle–class
The English Poor Law of 1834 was based on the theory that
if the conditions of provision for state welfare were intentionally made miserable, then the poor would be encouraged to find profitable employment
The revolution of 1848 in France ultimately resulted in
a new French empire under Louis Napoleon
Louis Blanc's "national workshops" in France
became little more than unemployment compensation units through public works projects
In 1848, the Frankfurt Assembly
failed in its attempt to create a united Germany
The uprisings in Austria in 1848 resulted in the
exile of Metternich
Giuseppe Mazzini's nationalist organization, Young Italy,
failed to achieve his goal of "resurgence" by 1849
Mazzini's risorgimento
failed due to opposition of the French, the Austrians, and the pope
Mass white male democracy in the United States was achieved during the presidency of
Andrew Jackson
Professional civilian police forces known as serjents first appeared in 1829 in
France
The politician who introduced the legislation that established London's first professional police force was
Robert Peel
Regular police forces and prison reform were geared toward
the creation of more disciplined and law–abiding societies
All of the following were characteristics of Romanticism except
the rejection of the supernatural and unfamiliar
The literary model for early Romantics was
The Sorrows of the Young Werther, by Goethe
The romantic movement can be viewed as a(n)
reaction against the Enlightenment's preoccupation with reason
The American romantic author of The Fall of the House of Usher was
Edgar Allan Poe
The most important form of literary expression for the romantics was
poetry
Which of the following were major themes/subjects of Romantic artists?
landscapes and depictions of nature
Romanticism in art and music was well characterized by
Beethoven, whose compositions bridged the gap between Classicism and Romanticism
In architectural styles, the Romantics were particularly attracted to the
Gothic
The Romantic artist whose paintings were described as "airy visions, painted with tinted steam" was
Turner
Religion in the age of Romanticism experienced
a Catholic revival especially in Germany
In establishing the Second Empire, Napoleon III
received the overwhelming electoral support of the people.
Under the "liberal empire" of Napoleon III in the 1860's
trade unions and the right to strike were legalized.
Among Napoleon III's great domestic projects was
a reconstruction of Paris with broad boulevards, public squares, and municipal utilities.
In economic matters, Napoleon III
b. used government resources to stimulate the national economy and industrial growth
Napoleon's most disastrous foreign policy adventure occurred in
Mexico
In the opinion of the British prime minister, the proclamation of a newly unified German state ruled by an emperor in 1871
entirely destroyed the previous European balance of power.
The immediate origins of the Crimean War involved
Russia's right to protect Christian shrines in Palestine.
An overall result of the Crimean War was
the destruction of the Concert of Europe and the creation of opportunities for Italian and German national unification.
In seeking unification, many Italian nationalists in the 1850's looked for leadership from
the kingdom of Piedmont.
The prime minister of Piedmont who organized the Italian unification movement was
Camillo di Cavour.
The dominant foreign power in Italy prior to unification was
Austria.
Cavour's key strategy to free Italy from Austrian domination required the military and diplomatic support of
France
The leader of the Red Shirts who helped to unify Italy through his military command was
Giuseppe Garibaldi.
The final act of Italian unification occurred in 1870 when
Rome became the capital city following the withdrawal of French troops.
Among the key motives prompting England and France to fight Russia in the Crimean War must be counted
Britain's great concern over disruption of the existing balance of power
Otto von Bismarck, the Prussian–born leader of German unification,
practiced Realpolitik in conducting domestic and foreign policy.
The emergence of a true parliamentary system in Prussia was blocked by
the king's overwhelming executive power.
The Zollverein describes
the German states' customs union dominated by Prussia.
As chancellor of Prussia, Otto von Bismarck
largely bypassed parliament in pursuing his political goals of military modernization.
A result of Bismarck's Austro–Prussian War was
the exclusion of Austria from the North German Confederation.
As a statesman, Bismarck can best be appreciated as
a consummate politician and opportunist capitalizing on unexpected events and manipulating affairs to his favor.
The immediate origins of the Franco–Prussian War concerned
Bismarck's devious editing of a telegram from King William I.
During the Franco–Prussian War
the French were decisively defeated at the Battle of Sedan.
As a consequence of her defeat in the Franco–Prussian War, France had to
A and C (pay an indemnity to Prussia of five billion Francs/give the eastern frontier provinces of Alsace and Lorraine to Prussia, a loss leaving the French set on revenge.)
Prussian leadership of German unification meant that
the triumph of authoritarian and militaristic values over liberal and constitutional values in the new German state.
In 1871, William I was proclaimed Kaiser, or emperor, of the Second Reich in
Versailles.
The Ausgleich or Compromise of 1867
created the dual monarchy of Austria–Hungary.
The creation of the dual monarchy of Austria–Hungary
allowed the Hungarian Magyars and German Austrians to dominate the other ethnic minorities.
The reforms of Tsar Alexander II centered around
the abolition of serfdom.
The Russian zemstvos were
local assemblies with regional self–governing powers.
The radical organization responsible for the assassination of Tsar Alexander II in 1881 was
the People's Will.
The British Liberal responsible for an impressive series of reform acts between 1868 and 1874 was
William Gladstone.
Among the key political consequences of Disraeli's Reform Act of 1867 was
a large increase in the number of voters and tighter organization of Liberal and Conservative political parties.
The American Civil War of 1861–65
was a clear precursor of "total war" in the twentieth century.
The Communist Manifesto of Marx and Engels
based all historical development on class struggle.
Karl Marx embraced the German philosopher Hegel's idea of the dialectic, meaning
all change in history is the result of clashes between directly antagonistic elements.
According to Karl Marx, the final product of the struggle between bourgeoisie and proletariat would
a classless society.
The First International
served as a type of umbrella organization for all European labor interests.
The theoretical discoveries in science in the nineteenth century led to all of the following except
a renewal of spiritual belief.
Which of the following statements best applies to Charles Darwin and his evolutionary theory?
His theory emphasized the idea of the "survival of the fit" in which advantageous natural variants and environmental adaptations in organisms determine their survival
Charles Darwin's The Descent of Man
argued for the animal origins of human beings, who had evolved by adapting to their environment over time
Joseph Lister was most noted in medicine for
discovering a new disinfectant to eliminate infections during surgery
Elizabeth Blackwell
became the first formally educated female doctor in America.
Auguste Comte was responsible for
founding the discipline of sociology.
The dominant literary and artistic movement in the 1850s and 1860s was
realism
The leading realist novelist of the nineteenth century was
Edgar Allan Poe.
In addition to examining everyday life, the literary realists of the mid–nineteenth century were also interested in
avoiding sentimental language by using careful observation and description.
Realist art in the mid–nineteenth–century
was interested in the natural environment and in showing scenes from everyday life.
The New German School in music emphasized
highly emotional content.
The nineteenth century composer associated with the concept of the Gesamtkunstwerk was
Wagner.
At the Congress of Vienna, the Austrian representative Prince Metternich pursued the policy of legitimacy, meaning
wishing to restore legitimate monarchs on their thrones, preserving traditional institutions and values
After Napoleon's defeat, the Quadruple Alliance
restored the old Bourbon monarchy to France in the person of Louis XVIII
The Congress of Vienna
created policies that would maintain the European balance of power
The foreign minister and diplomat who dominated the Congress of Vienna was
Klemens von Metternich
Klemens von Metternich
believed European monarchs shared the common interest of stability
Conservatism, the dominant political philosophy following the fall of Napoleon
was exemplified by Edmund Burke's Reflections on the Revolution in France, emphasizing the dangers of radical and "rational" political change.
At its most elementary Burkean level, conservatism
sought to preserve the achievements of previous generations by subordinating individual rights to communal welfare
The Congress of Vienna was most successful at
establishing an order that managed to avoid a general European conflict for almost a century
The most important factor in preventing the European overthrow of the newly independent nations of Latin America was
British naval power
The Greek revolt was successful largely due to
European intervention
When protestors of high bread prices in England clashed with government authorities, the resulting conflict was known as the
Peterloo Massacre
By 1815, following the Congress of Vienna, the Italian peninsula
remained divided into several states subject to the domination of other European powers
The growing forces of liberalism and nationalism in central Europe were exemplified by the
Burschenschaften, the student societies of Germany
The Karlsbad Decrees of 1819 did all of the following except
dissolved several smaller German states
Following the death of Alexander I in 1825, Russian society under Nicholas I became
became a police state, as the czar feared both internal and external revolutionary upheavals
The argument that population must be held in check for any progress to take place was popularized by
Thomas Malthus
Which of the following statements best applies to David Ricardo?
He developed the idea of the "iron law of wages."
The foremost social group embracing liberalism was made up by
the industrial middle class
J.S. Mill's On the Subjection of Women stated that
men and women did not possess different natures
Central to the liberal ideology in the nineteenth century was
an emphasis on individual freedom
The growing movement of nationalism in nineteenth–century Europe
was radical since it encouraged people to shift their political loyalty away from existing states and rulers
The utopian socialists of the first half of the nineteenth century were best characterized by
Charles Fourier, who envisioned cooperative communities called "phalansteries."
In the July revolution of 1830,
Louis–Philippe succeeded Charles X as king of the French
King Louis–Philippe in France
cooperated with François Guizot and the Party of Resistance against the Party of Movement
The most successful nationalistic European revolution in 1830 was in
Belgium
The primary driving force in the revolutions of Belgium, Poland, and Italy in 1830 was
nationalism
The Polish national uprising of 1830 was crushed by
Russia
Which of the following statements best applies to Thomas Macaulay's thoughts on reform in Britain?
He supported reforms as a means of prevent more radical revolutionary movements
The Reform Bill of 1832 in Britain primarily benefited the
upper middle–class
The English Poor Law of 1834 was based on the theory that
if the conditions of provision for state welfare were intentionally made miserable, then the poor would be encouraged to find profitable employment
The revolution of 1848 in France ultimately resulted in
a new French empire under Louis Napoleon
Louis Blanc's "national workshops" in France
became little more than unemployment compensation units through public works projects
In 1848, the Frankfurt Assembly
failed in its attempt to create a united Germany
The uprisings in Austria in 1848 resulted in the
exile of Metternich
Giuseppe Mazzini's nationalist organization, Young Italy,
failed to achieve his goal of "resurgence" by 1849
Mazzini's risorgimento
failed due to opposition of the French, the Austrians, and the pope
Mass white male democracy in the United States was achieved during the presidency of
Andrew Jackson
Professional civilian police forces known as serjents first appeared in 1829 in
France
The politician who introduced the legislation that established London's first professional police force was
Robert Peel
Regular police forces and prison reform were geared toward
the creation of more disciplined and law–abiding societies
All of the following were characteristics of Romanticism except
the rejection of the supernatural and unfamiliar
The literary model for early Romantics was
The Sorrows of the Young Werther, by Goethe
The romantic movement can be viewed as a(n)
reaction against the Enlightenment's preoccupation with reason
The American romantic author of The Fall of the House of Usher was
Edgar Allan Poe
The most important form of literary expression for the romantics was
poetry
Which of the following were major themes/subjects of Romantic artists?
landscapes and depictions of nature
Romanticism in art and music was well characterized by
Beethoven, whose compositions bridged the gap between Classicism and Romanticism
In architectural styles, the Romantics were particularly attracted to the
Gothic
The Romantic artist whose paintings were described as "airy visions, painted with tinted steam" was
Turner
Religion in the age of Romanticism experienced
a Catholic revival especially in Germany
1. Who was responsible for the theory of relativity?
Einstein
2. Just prior to World War I, the European intellectual community was marked by
a sense of confusion and anxiety leading to feelings of imminent catastrophe.
3. The experimental work of early twentieth–century physicists challenged and ultimately invalidated
the rational, mechanical conception of the universe posited in the physics of Newton.
4. Inquiry into the disintegrative processes within atoms became a central theme in the new physics in part due to the experimental work of
Marie and Pierre Curie on radium and radiation.
5. The quantum theory of energy developed by Max Planck raised fundamental questions about the
subatomic realm of the atom and the basic building blocks of the material world.
6. Friedrich Nietzsche
believed that Christianity had deeply undermined the creative power of western civilization.
7. Which of the following philosophers advocated violence, if necessary, as a means of achieving socialism?
Georges Sorel
8. According to Sigmund Freud, behavior was
determined by one's unconscious and by inner drives of which people were generally unaware.
9. Freud maintained that a human being's inner life was a battleground between all of the following except the
alterego.
10. According to Freud, the superego
was the locus of conscience and represented the inhibitions and moral values society in general and parents in particular impose upon people.
11. Social Darwinism was
applying the ideas of Darwin to society.
12. According to Houston Stewart Chamberlain, the Aryans were
the real creators of western culture.
13. Using Darwin's terminology, Herbert Spencer argued that
human societies were organism evolving through time by struggling with their environments
14. The urbanization of Europe brought religion under attack from all of the following except
parliaments and legal societies.
15. The greatest difference between naturalism and realism in literature was
in general, naturalism was more pessimistic than realism.
16. The best example of naturalistic literature can be found in the novels of
Emile Zola.
17. Explaining his use of naturalism in his novels and his depiction of characters, Emile Zola said
"I have simply done on living bodies the work of analysis which surgeons perform on corpses."
18. The higher criticism of the Bible championed by the French Catholic scholar Ernst Renan
questioned the historical accuracy of the Bible and denied the divinity of Jesus.
19. In his encyclical De Rerum Novarum (1891), Pope Leo XIII
asserted that much in socialism was Christian in principle.
20. The Catholic Church took a rigid stand against modern ideas including religious toleration, freedom of speech, and freedom of the press under the direction of conservative popes such as
Pius IX.
21. In art, modernism found its beginnings in the work of Pissarro called
Impressionism.
22. Which of the following art movements was not prominent in the three decades prior to World War I?
Surrealism
23. Modernism in music included all of the following elements except
the exclusive use of extremely regular rhythms.
24. At its premier, Igor Stravinsky's Rite of Spring, now considered as a classic example of modernism in music and ballet,
caused a great riot at the theater by the audience because of its sharp dissonance, and blatant sensuality.
25. The first professional occupation to be opened up to women was
teacher.
26. Which of the following was not a pioneer in the field of nursing?
Emmeline Pankhurst
27. The leader of the womens suffrage movement in England was
Emmeline Pankhurst.
28. To advance the cause of women's suffrage, the Women's Social and Political Union founded by Emmeline Pankhurst and her daughters
took a radical, public, and well publicized approach to the movement, employing different media and provocative public actions, like pelting male politicians with eggs.
29. During the nineteenth century, Jews
were emancipated in most countries, but still faced restrictions
30. In general, by the late nineteenth century, the worst treatment of the Jews occurred in
Eastern Europe.
31. Maria Montessori exemplifies the "new woman" of modern times in that
she obtained a professional degree and applied her expertise to new fields of inquiry like early childhood development.
32. Theodor Herzl, the leader of the Zionist movement,
advocated the creation of a Jewish state in Palestine.
33. In order to implement the Liberal Party's social reform program, David Lloyd George radically curtailed the power of the
House of Lords.
34. Among the notable achievements of the British Liberals under Lloyd George was
passage of the National Insurance Act of 1911 providing sickness and unemployment benefits to workers with state aid.
35. The event which exemplified renewed anti–Semitism in France in the late nineteenth century was the
Dreyfus affair.
36. Growing tensions in modern German society were exemplified by
the proliferation of ultra–nationalist right–wing political pressure groups with anti–Semitic, racist, and imperialist beliefs.
37. The Pan–German League advocated
anti–liberal policies including the development of a global German colonial empire to unite all different classes of citizens at home.
38. The Fabian Socialists in Britain advocated
the necessity of workers using their new voting rights to elect a new House of Commons wherein legislation favorable to the working classes could be passed in democratic fashion.
39. Italian trasformismo
was a policy of politics employed by Giovanni Giolitti and included the transformation of old political parties into new power blocks through the calculated use of political patronage and outright bribery.
40. Russia's disastrous defeat in the Russo–Japanese war indirectly led to the
the Revolution of 1905.
41. Which of the following was not an argument to justify imperialism at the turn of the century?
the argument to lessen the burden of excess European population, especially criminals and other "undesirables"
42. The Boer War was fought by the British in
Zimbabwe.
43. The mid–Pacific islands became a sphere of influence of
United States.
44. The "Boxers"
were Chinese who attempted to expel all foreigners from the country through armed rebellion.
45. The Meiji Restoration in Japan
created a political system democratic in form but rigidly authoritarian in practice and sent many Japanese abroad to be educated in the ways of the west and adopted many western reforms in political and military organization.
46. The basis of the Bismarckian System was
the isolation of France through a series of military alliances.
47. The Triple Alliance before 1914 included which of the following countries?
Germany, Austria, Italy
48. The Bismarckian System had the ultimate result of
dividing Europe into two opposing groups of nations making war more likely.
49. The Triple Entente before 1914 included which of the following countries?
Great Britain, France, Russia
50. The primary antagonists in the Balkans region were
Serbs and Austrians.
Which of the following trends helped lead to the outbreak of the Great War?
European states felt they had to uphold the power of their allies for their own internal security
The First World War not only killed millions of human beings, it also destroyed one of the basic intellectual precepts upon which recent Western Civilization had been founded:
the belief in progress
Before the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the general outlook for the future by most Europeans was
highly optimistic with material progress expected to create an earthly utopia.
The immediate cause of World War I was
the assassination of Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand in Sarajevo.
Among nineteenth–century European political movements, the one most responsible for triggering World War I was
nationalism.
Between 1890 and 1914, in part through conscription, European military forces had
doubled in size
The outbreak of the Great War was greatly accelerated by the Schlieffen Plan, which was
Germany's military plan to invade France through neutral Belgium before attacking Russia
The rivalry between which states for domination of southeastern Europe helped create serious tensions before World War I?
Austria–Hungary and Russia
What was the state that was a thorn in Austria–Hungary's side and a primary cause of World War I?
Serbia
On the eve of the outbreak of war in Europe in 1914, William II of Germany
attempted to engage Nicholas II in a diplomatic dialogue to possibly avoid war
Austrian ultimatums to Serbia, hastening the outbreak of World War I, came, in part, because the
Austrians had received a "blank check" of German support and military backing.
In August 1914, the perception of the upcoming war among Europeans was that
the war would be very short, possibly only weeks in duration.
As early as July 28, 1914, European diplomats were becoming incapable of slowing a rush toward war mainly because
the complex, rigid, and demanding mobilization plans devised by European army generals made immediate military action essential.
Most Europeans believed that the Great War would
be an exciting, emotional release from the otherwise dull and boring existence of mass society
The most important consequence of the first year of World War I was
a deadly stalemate on the western front as a result of the failure of German war plans.
On the eastern front,
the Russian invasion of Germany was repelled.
The development of trench warfare in France was characterized by
long periods of boredom broken by artillery barrages and frontal assaults by enemy troops
The First World War in the east was characterized by
more mobility than the trench warfare on the Western Front
As fought in the World War I, trench warfare
a and c (became a senseless slaughter of troops on all sides with hundreds of thousands of men dying for battlefield gains of a few miles; became increasingly unreal as baffled and incompetent officers persistently ordered their men to accomplish battlefield objectives that were impossible)
As soldiers on both sides realized that no one could gain an advantage in trench warfare
daily life for the soldier became increasingly squalid and miserable in rat–infested trenches.
"The Watch on the Rhine," a song that expressed deep patriotism and the heroism of fighting men, was a favorite tune of the
Germans.
The tank
would play a larger role in World War II than in World War I.
The entry of the United States into World War I in April 1917
gave the nearly–defeated allies a psychological boost.
The chief reason for the United States' entry into World War I was
German violations of the principles of neutrality and freedom of the seas
Economically, World War I
witnessed European governments gradually take full control of all aspects of their economies
In World War I, the Turkish Ottoman Empire fought on the side of
Austria and Germany
The fact that European states fighting in World War I had to effectively organize masses of men and material for years of deadly combat led to
all of the above (increased centralization and expansion of government powers; economic regimentation of entire countries; unscrupulous manipulation of public opinion through mass propaganda and government control of information)
As public morale and support for the war ebbed
police powers were expanded to include the arrest of all dissenters as traitors to the state.
The capable French wartime leader Georges Clemenceau uttered perhaps the only observation on World War One worthy of memory when he said
"War is too important to be left to generals."
Internal opposition to the war in European nations came largely from
liberals and socialists appalled by the scale of human slaughter
The women workers of World War I played an important role in
gaining women the right to vote immediately following the war
Death rates at the front in World War One were high for all soldiers engaged regardless of their prior social status, but mortality was especially great among
a and c (junior officers drawn largely from the aristocracy; unskilled laborers and peasants comprising the mass of infantry troops)
One socioeconomic group that clearly benefited from World War I was
large industrialists, especially owners of factories making weapons and munitions
The collapse of Russia's tsarist regime in March 1917 was aided by all of the following except
the leadership of the Mensheviks in forming the new Provisional Government.
Which of the following statements best applies to Nicholas II's tsarist regime?
Alexandra, Nicholas' wife, kept him isolated from the reality of domestic disturbances.
V.I. Lenin
as a leader of the Bolsheviks, promised "peace, land, and bread."
Lenin's "April Theses"
outlined a specifically Russian movement toward socialism without first going through a bourgeois revolution
Following the Bolshevik seizure of power in November 1917
Lenin ratified the redistribution of land which had already been seized by peasants.
After seizing power in October 1917, Lenin
repudiated the democratic elections which had given the Bolsheviks only a minority of delegates.
In the 1918 Treaty of Brest–Litovsk,
to get peace, Lenin gave up Finland, the Ukraine, Poland, and the Baltic states
The Second Battle of the Marne was
the end of Germany's final, futile effort to win the war
In World War I, it is estimated that ____ soldiers died and ____ were wounded
eight or nine million, twenty–two million
All of the following states were created out of the Austro–Hungarian Empire following World War I except
Poland.
For Woodrow Wilson, the most important thing after the war was to
assure acceptance of his Fourteen Points.
The chief motivation of Georges Clemenceau's terms of armistice was to
punish Germany and gain security for France.
The Treaty of Versailles
forced Germany to acknowledge "war guilt" and to pay reparations for its alleged wartime aggression.
The feature of the Versailles Treaty that most Germans found very hard to accept was
Article 231, the "War Guilt Clause" which imposed heavy war reparations on Germany.
As a result of World War I, Eastern Europe
witnessed the emergence of many new nation–states.

In the aftermath of World War I,
the United States retreated into isolationism.
The series of revolutionary upheavals in central Europe following Germany's defeat led to

the creation of several independent republics within the old Austro–Hungarian Empire.