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162 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is evolution
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the change in the genetic composition of a population over time
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what is microevolution
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change in gene frequencies of a population over a succession of generations
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what is macroevolution
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formation of new species... it is two new species if they do not mate any longer
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what is natural selection
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differential reproductive success.
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what is struggle for existence?
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competition
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what is exponential fertility
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overreproduction or the reproduction of more offspring than can survive
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what is heritable variation?
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differences with a population which allow some organisms to adapt better to the environment
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what is differential reproductive success
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fitness or number of offspring into the next generation
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artificial selection
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the breeding of domesticated plants and animals
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natural selection
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the breeding of domesticated plants and animals that happens in nature
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stabilizing selection
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favors intermediate phenotypes
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directional selection
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favors individuals at one end of the phenotypic range
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disruptive selection
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favors individuals on both extremes of phenotypic range
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descent with modifications
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descent from an ancestor. descendants of an ancestral organism moved into differing habitats over millions of years, they accumulated diverse adaptations that fit them to specific ways of life
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phylogeny
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evolutionary history of a species
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cladogram
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uses derived characteristics to construct a diagram showing evolutionary history
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derived characters
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characteristic that appears in recent parts of a lineage but not in older members used to construct a cladogram... ex. segmentatin, hair, backboneq
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biogeography
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island species are more similar to mainlands than other areas with similar cimate to mainland than other areas with similar climate
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fossil record
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shows transitional links
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comparative anatomy or homologous structures
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share structure and different function from a common ancestor ex. forelimbs of vertebrate
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vestigial structures
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whales/ snakes with hind limbs; wings on flightless birds ... no longer needed for survival
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analogous structures
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have/had the same function but a different structure
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comparative embryology
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embryology that looks the same in different species can argue that they have the same ancestors
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gene pool
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all of the genes in a population
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genome
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all of the genes in an individual
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what is the hardy-weinberg theorem's purpose
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to model the genetic structures of nonevolving population at equilibrium
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what are the five conditions of the hardy-weinberg theorem
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very large population
no migration no net mutations random mating no natural selection |
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genetic drift
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changes in the gene pool of a SMALL population due to CHANCE
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bottleneck effect
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population is reduced because of a natural disaster and the new population no longer has the allele frequency of the original population
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founder effect
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colonization by a limited number of individuals and their allele frequency different from the parent population
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gene flow
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migration that reduces differences between populations
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mutation
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change in an organism's dna; immediately changes the gene pool of a population and does not have much effect in a single generation but has cumulative effect
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non-random mating
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when organisms choose mate for some reason
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inbreeding
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mating with close relative, self-fertilization increases homozygotes
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assortive mating
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individuals select partners that are similar to themselves which results in more homozygotes
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natural selection
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only agent of microevolution that will adapt a population to its environment
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sex selection
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choice of mate based on desirable qualities
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macroevolution
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the origin of new species
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anagenesis
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accumulation of changes that gradually change a species into a new species with different characteristics
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cladogenesis
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splitting of a gene pool into two or more separate pools, which give ri9se to new species (1 or more)
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biological species concept
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members have the potential to produce viable and fertile offspring
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reproductive isolation
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idea behind formation of new species because this has to be established for new species to be formed, so the two can't mate with each other
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prezygotic barriers
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prevent fertilization from occuring
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postzygotic barriers
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prevent the hybrid zygote from developing into viable and fertile adult
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habitat- prezygotic barrier
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2 species that occupy different habitats within the same area
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temporal prezygotic barrier
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breed during different times of day, season, year
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behavioral prezygotic barrier
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unique courtship rituals
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mechanical prezygotic barrier
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morphological differences prevent successful mating
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gametic postzygotic barrier
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sperm of one may not fertilize eggs of another species
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reduced hybrid viability postzygotic barrier
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genes of different parent species may interact and impair hybrid's development
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reduced hybrid fertility postzygotic barrier
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sterile hybrids
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hybrid breakdown postzygotic barrier
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first generation hybrids are viable and fertile, but second generation is feeble and sterile
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speciation
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formation of a new species
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allopatric speciation
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different country... geographic isolation
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sympatric speciation
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same country... takes place in geographically overlapping populations and must form reproductive barriers
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polyploidy
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presence of extra sets of chromosomes in cells due to accidents during cell division
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autopolyploid
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same species and chromosome number doubles
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allopolyploid
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different species and the number of chromosomes is added
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what is ecology
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scientific study of interactions between organisms and their environment
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punctuated equilibrium
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The theory that speciation occurs in spurts of major genetic alterations that punctuate long periods of little change
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how to find allele frequency using hardy-weinberg?
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p^2+2pq+q^2=1 where the p^2 is the freq of the homozygous dominant genotype, 2pq is the freq of the heterozygote, and q^2 is the homozygous recessive genotype.
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what are active defenses against predation
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hiding, fleeing, defending
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what is cryptic coloration
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camouflage
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what is aposematic coloration
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warning coloration (bright colors)
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what is batesian mimicry
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harmless species mimics harmful species
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what is mullerian mimicry
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two bad-tasting species look alike
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what is symbiosis
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when individuals live in direct contact with each other
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parasitism
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parasite benefits; host is harmed
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mutualism
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both benefit
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commensalism
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one benefits, other is neither harmed nor helped
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tropical forest biome
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much rainfall with a dry season. much biodiversity
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desert biome
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dry and hot low precipitation lowlying vegetation, nocturnal animals
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savanna biome
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grass and scattered trees, fires, large herbivores
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chaparral biome
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small shrubs and fire resistant plants with waxy leaves, goats, amphibians
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coniferous forest biome
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cone-bearing trees, moose, bears, siberian tigers
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temperate grassland
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tall grass, shrubs, droughts, fertile soil
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temperate broadleaf forest biome
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2-3 layers of trees, deciduous trees, mammals
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tundra biome
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cold winter, permafrost, reindeer, shrubs
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what characterizes the hydroxyl functional group
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alcohols
polar oxygen pulls electrons toward itself |
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what does polar mean
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dissolves in water
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what characterizes the carboxyl functional group
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acidic
source of H+ So polar that H+ dissociate reversibly It can donate H+ ion to a solution, making it more acidic |
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what characterizes the amino functional group?
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acts as a base
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what characterizes phosphate functional group
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gives negative charge to molecule
important in energy transfer of ATP when energy is released with breaking bonds. |
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what are functional groups
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components of organic molecules which are usually involved in chemical reactions.
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what are the monomers of carbohydrates
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monosaccharides: simple sugars
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monomers of lipids
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glycerol and fatty acids
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monomers of proteins
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amino acids
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monomers of nucleic acids
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phosphate, sugar, base
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what is basic structure of carbohydrates
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CH2O... contain carbonyl group and multiple hydroxyl groups
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what is basic structure of lipids
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glycerol and fatty acids... CHO
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basic structure of proteins
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hydrogen group, amino group, variable group, carboyxyl group, central carbon
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basic structure of nucleic acid
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phosphates, sugars, bases
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mono, di, or poly: starch
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polysaccharide
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mono, di, or poly: cellulose
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polysaccharide
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mono, di, or poly: glycogen
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polysaccharide
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mono, di, or poly: chitin
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polysaccharide
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mono, di, or poly: glucose
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monosaccharide
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mono, di, or poly: sucrose
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disaccharide
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mono, di, or poly: fructose
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monosaccharide
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mono, di, or poly: lactose
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disaccharide
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mono, di, or poly: ribose
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monosaccharide
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mono, di, or poly: deoxyribose
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monosaccharide
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mono, di, or poly: maltose
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disaccharide: it is glucose plus glucose
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what are four unique properties of water?
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cohesion: molecules of similar molecules stick to it
adhesion: substances sticking together surface tension: allows water to pull together and form droplets, and some things can rest on its surface high specific heat versatile solvent |
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cell wall
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Support (grow tall)
Protection allows H2O, O2, CO2 to diffuse in & out of cell |
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cell membrane
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Support
Protection Controls movement of materials in/out of cell Barrier between cell and its environment Maintains homeostasis |
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nucleus
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Controls cell activities
Contains the hereditary material of the cell |
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nuclear membrane
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Controls movement of materials in/out of nucleus
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cytoplasm
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Supports and protects cell organelles
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smooth ER
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The rough endoplasmic reticulum manufactures membranes and secretory proteins. In certain leukocytes (white blood cells), the rough ER produces antibodies. In pancreatic cells, the rough ER produces insulin. The rough and smooth ER are usually interconnected and the proteins and membranes made by the rough ER move into the smooth ER to be transferred to other locations.
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rough ER
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The smooth ER has a wide range of functions including carbohydrate and lipid synthesis. It serves as a transitional area for vesicles that transport ER products to various destinations. In liver cells the smooth ER produces enzymes that help to detoxify certain compounds. In muscles the smooth ER assists in the contraction of muscle cells, and in brain cells it synthesizes male and female hormones.
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ribosome
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synthesizes proteins
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mitochondrion
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Breaks down sugar (glucose) molecules to release energy
Site of aerobic cellular respiration |
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vacuole
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Store food, water, metabolic & toxic wastes
Store large amounts of food or sugars in plants |
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lysosome
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Breaks down larger food molecules into smaller molecules
Digests old cell parts |
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chloroplast
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Uses energy from sun to make food (glucose) for the plant
Process called photosynthesis Release oxygen |
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nucleolus
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make ribosomes
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golgi apparatus
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Have a cis & trans face
Modify proteins made by the cells Package & export proteins |
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cilia and flagellum
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movement
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centrioles
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Separate chromosome pairs during mitosis
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cytoskeleton
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Strengthen cell & maintains the shape
Moves organelles within the cell |
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what is a hypertonic solution
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higher concentration of solutes in the solution than in the "cell"... water flows out of the "cell" and it shrinks
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what is a hypotonic solution
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the solution has a lower amount of solute than the "cell" and water flows into the "cell" and it gets larger and can be subject to explosion... but it is good for plants' turgor pressure
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what is an isotonic solution
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the solution has the same amount of solution concentration as the "cell" and water flows freely both into and out of the "cell" and it is at a state of dynamic equilibrium
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what is water potential
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High volume (concentration) H2O in one location represents great free energy.
(Free energy = energy available to do work) H2O moves from high free energy to low free energy *compared to pure water at 1 atm. in steady temperature |
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what are gap junctions in cell signaling
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connections between animal cells
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cell-cell recognition
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direct contact between cell membranes on cell walls.. important in embryonic development and immune response
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paracrine signaling
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can work on several cells at a time... ex. growth factors-stimulate cells to grow and multiply
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plasmodesmata
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openings in the cell wall for communication
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synaptic signaling
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secretion of chemical signal in form of neurotransmitters
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what are used for long distance signaling
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hormones
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what are the three stages in cell signaling?
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reception, transduction, response
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when is a chemical signal detected
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when it binds to receptor protein at the surface of the cell
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what is a ligand
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molecule that specifically binds to another molecule.. they are recognized by the receptor protein for reception to occur... if a ligand is large and polar (water soluble), it will bind to a protein on the cell membrane... if ligand is small and nonpolar, it will bind to a target molecule in the cytoplasm or nucleus.
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what is g protein linked receptor
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the g protein is the on and off switch and it is linked to cholera... whooping cough... etc.
GDP is inactive state and GTP is the active state. An activated G protein leaves the receptor and binds to an enzume, which activates it. Then, GTPase removes the phosphate so the protein becomes inactive again |
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what is transduction in cell signaling
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binding changes the receptor protein and the sequence of changes in a series of molecules. lt is mainly reliant on protein interaction. phosphorylation and dephosphorylation are widely used to regulate protein activity
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what is protein kinase
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enzyme that transfers phosphate groups from ATP to protein and usually activate
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what is protein phosphatase?
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enzymes that can rapidly remove phosphates from proteins... they dephosphorylate and thus usually deactivate.
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what is the response portion of cell signaling
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it triggers a specific cellular response like opening or closing an ion channel, regulating synthesis of enzymes by turning genes off or on
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enzyme
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biological catalyst that decreases activation energy which allows reactions to occur more rapidly
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what are active sites of enzymes
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highly specific sites on the enzyme where substrate attaches
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ATP phosphorylates
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transfer of a phosphate group because of these, which are usually proteins
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what is cellular respiration
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changing glucose in the presence of oxygen into ATP
C6H2O2+O2 yields CO2+H2O+ATP |
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what are coenzymes
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they transport energy in the body... nad+ acts as an oxidizing agent since it takes electrons from glucose. NADH is the reduced form and has more energy
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what is glycolysis
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destruction of glucose
occurs in cytoplasm does not require oxygen ATP is made by substrate-level phosphorylation: generation of ATP directly from breaking bonds... it generates small amounts of ATP |
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what is the intermediate step of cellular respiration
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occurs after glycolysis and before CAC. it occurs in inner part of mitochondria. The products are 2co2, 2nadh, and 2 acetyl-coA.
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what is the CAC
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citric acid cycle (Krebs') occurs in matrix of mitochondria; it is aerobic; ATP made by substrate-level phosphorylation
Three major functions: make reduced coenzymes for ETC (NADH, FADH2); carbon skeletons for biosynthesis; central process in metabolism-where all nutrients (carbs,lipids, proteins) are oxidized |
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what is oxidative phosphorylation
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"coenzymes are oxidized (give up their electrons) and ADP is phosphorylated to form ATP"... it includes ETC and chemiosmosis (diffusion of chemicals)
It occurs in miitochondria, requires oxygen, yields 32-34 ATP. |
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alcoholic fermentation
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makes 2atp from glycolysis, ethyl alcohol, co2 and nad+. it occurs in yeast and bacteria and is anaerobic
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lactic acid fermentation
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produces 2atp from glycolysis, lactic acid, nad+(which allows process to continue), occurs in muscles and bacteria, and is anaerobic
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what happens during light dependent reactions of photosynthesis
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makes energy, requires light, occurs in thylakoid, and produces ATP, NADPH, and O2
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what happens during calvin cycle of photosynthesis
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light independent, makes glucose, does not require light, occurs in strome, and the product is glucose
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do alcoholic fermentation and lactic acid fermentation use pyruvic acid?
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yes... because they require glycolysis which has a reactant of 2 pyruvic acids
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what is activation energy
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least amount of energy that is needed for a reaction to occur
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what is energy coupling
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the use of an exothermic process to drive endothermic reactions
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light dependent reactions
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includes both noncyclic and cyclic flow of electrons. it requires chlorophyll a and it is the only pigment that directly participates in ps and it is blue-green in color
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what is photophosphorylation
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light is used to add a phosphate to ADP, forming ATP cyclic or noncyclic
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what is an accessory pigment
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absorb light and transfer to chlorophyll...ex.carotenes:orange, xanthophylls:yellow, chlorophyll:yellow-green
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cyclic flow of electrons
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purpose: produce ATP
spent e- enter PSI, they get a boost of energy from light. they are captured by a primary electron acceptor, they cycle back to the first ETC, as they move through ETC, they pump protons, which creates the H+ gradient so ATP can be made |
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what is purpose of anaerobic pathways?
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to produce NAD+ to be recycled back into glycolysis... no ATP is produced
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calvin cycle
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dark reactions
use ATP and NADPH from light reactions to convert CO2 to glucose sugar made direcdtly by calvin cycle is not glucose but 3GP. there are three phases of calvin cycle: carbon fixation, reduction, and regeneration of co2 acceptor |
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photosynthesis equation
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6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy --> C6H12O6 + 6O2
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