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106 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back
What is respiration?
it is the process of gas exchange within the body.
This is the flow of air into and out of the lungs. Another name for breathing.
Pulmonary ventilation
What is external respiration?
it is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between alveoli and circulatory system.
What is Internal Respiration?
it is the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the capillaries and cells.
________ is the breakdown of glucose to produce ATP; requires oxygen, produces carbon dioxide.
Cellular respiration
_____ is the process of bringing air into the lungs.
Inspiration (inhalation)
Define Boyle's Law.
The pressure of a gas is inversely proportional to the volume of the container (lungs) at a constant temperature.
Normal inspiration is initiated by the _______ of the Diaphragm (along with the External Intercostal Muscles). Alveolar pressure is ______, atmospheric air rushes into the lungs. Muscles that can enlarge the Intrathoracic space will _____ inspiration, they originate superiorly to the rib cage.
contraction, decreased, increase
_____ is the movement of air out of the lungs.
Expiration (exhalation)
Expiration is normally a passive process caused by muscle relaxation ad the elastic recoil of the chest wall. The Intrathoracic space _______, putting pressure on the available air in the Lungs. This causes the Alveolar pressure to _______. Air then rushes out of the Lungs. Forced exhalation is produced by muscles that originate from below.
decreases, increase
Other factors affecting Pulmonary Ventilation:

1. Surface tension of Alveolar Fluid results from the natural attraction of water molecules to one another. This force constricts Alveoli.

2. Compliance - define.

3. Airway resistance - define.
It is the ease with which the lungs and thoracic wall can be expanded.

The hindrance encountered by air as it moves through the respiratory passages, especially the bronchioles.
______ is normal quiet breathing; the volume of one breath.
Tidal volume
What is Inspiratory Reserve Volume?
it is the amount of air an adult can forcefully inhale after Tidal Volume.
What is Expiratory Reserve Volume?
The amount of air an adult can forcefully exhale after Tidal Volume.
This is the air that remains in the Lungs after a full expiration. This air helps keep the Alveoli inflated.
Residual volume
What is Vital Capacity?

Inspiratory Reserve Volume + Expiratory Reserve Volume + Tidal Volume
it is the maximum amount of air that can be moved out of the Lungs after maximum inspiration.
Vital Capacity + Residual volume = _____
Total Lung Capacity
This is the amount of air in the passageways that carry air into the Lungs. Areas where oxygen and carbon dioxide are not exchangd.
Anatomic Dead Space
What is Dalton's Law?

What is partial pressure?
Each gas in a mixture of gases exerts its own pressure (partial pressure) as if all the other gases were not present.

Partial pressure- percentage of gas in a mixture X total pressure of a mixture
What is Henry's Law?
The quantity of a gas that will dissolve in a liquid (blood) is proportional to the partial pressure of a gas and its solubility coefficient (how well it mixes with water), at constant temperature.
Transportation of Oxygen and Carbon Dioxide

1. Oxygen- 98% of the oxygen in the body is carried by hemoglobin as ______. Approximately 1.5% is dissolved in _____ _____. Only the dissolved oxygen can diffuse into capillaries.

Key factor in oxygen binding: as the partial pressure of oxygen increases, more oxygen binds to hemoglobin. As the partial pressure of oxygen decreases as blood travels to the capillaries, more oxygen will be released by hemoglobin. This oxygen is now available to diffuse across the capillary wall.
Oxyhemoglobin, blood plasma
Factors that affect oxygen-hemoglobin binding:

1. Acidity

2. Partial pressure of carbon dioxide

3. Temperature

4. BPG
1. lower pH leads to less oxygen-hemoglobin binding

2. the pH of the blood decreases as CO2 accumulates

3. less binding occurs as the body temp rises

4. increased levels of BPG decreases oxygen-hemoglobin binding; BPG is formed in RBCs from glycolysis, associated with higher altitudes.
What is the Bohr effect?
Denaturing of globin due to acidity.
CO2 is transported in 3 forms:

1. Dissolved in blood plasma (9%)

2. Carbamino compounds (13%) - what Is this?

3. Bicarbonate ions (78%)
these are compounds formed with co2 binds to various amino acids and proteins in the blood plasma. Most of this is in the form of carbaminohemoglobin.
Respiratory Center - cluster of neurons located in the _____ and _____.
medulla, pons
What is the function of the Respiratory Center?
it discharges impulses to the diaphragm through Phrenic Nerve and Intercostal Muscles. The basic respiratory rate is established by autorhythmic neurons.
Explain Chemical Regulation.
Chemoreceptors are stimulated by changing hydrogen ions, CO2 and oxygen levels.
Explain Cortical Stimulation.
The respirator pattern can be altered by an act of the will or emotional stimulation.
Stimulation of proprioceptors ________ respiratory activity.
increases
What is Inflation Reflex?
When respiratory tissues are overstretched, inhalation is temporarily inhibited so exhalation will bring the tissue fibers to a proper length.
What happens to respiratory control during aging?
Tissues become less elastic, more rigid, resulting in a decreased lung capacity. Overall, ability to ward off disease is decreased.

The respiratory and cardiovascular systems are intimately related. When one of these systems has a defect, it reduces the working capacity of both systems.
Disorders:

1. ______ - a chronic inflammatory disorder that produces sporadic narrowing in the airways, causes difficulty breathing which can lead to panic; variety of irritants are the cause.

2. _____ - productive cough with sputum for 3 months out of a year for two years in a row; causes excess mucous, shortage of breath and wheezing.

3. _____ - destruction of alveolar walls causing the air space to become increased; leads to poor oxygen-co2 exchange; caused by long term irritation; "barrel-like" chest.

4. _____ - is often caused by chronic irritation; high rate of metastasis; smoking is the most common cause; leads to chronic cough, bloody sputum, shortage of breath, chest pain, hoarse throat, difficulty swallowing, weight loss, anorexia, fatigue


5. ____ - acute inflammation of the alveoli; alveoli can fill with fluid causing poor gas exchange; caused by microbes; leads to fever, chills, cough, malaise, chest pain, possibly difficulty breathing; often a secondary infection

6. _____ - caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis; primarily effects the lungs; leads to fatigue, weight loss, lethargy, anorexia, night sweats, cough, difficulty breathing, chest pain, coughing up blood; a chronic progressive illness

7. ____ - viral origin, over 200 types; causes rhinitis, rhonorrea, sneezing, dry cough, congestion, can lead to secondary infections

8. _____- a genetic disorder that leads to the production of thickened mucous that blocks the passageways of the body; causes early death and morality is often due to respiratory failure
1. asthma
2. chronic bronchitis
3. emphysema
4. lung cancer
5. Pneumonia
6. TB
7. Common Cold - Coryza
8. Cystic Fibrosis
____: eating or drinking
ingestion
_____: release of fluids and enzymes into the GI tract
secretion
____: the movement of material along the GI tract
motility
____ the breakdown of ingested food stuff
digestion
____: the passage of digested food and secretions into the blood and lympth
absorption
____: elimination of feces
defecation
Layers of the GI Tract

1. Mucosa: inner lining; three layers:

a. epithelium:
b. lamina propria:
c. muscularis mucosae:

2. Submucosa

3. Muscularis

4. Serosa
a. layer that contacts food; stratified squamous epithelium at each end, columnar epithelium in the middle

b. areolar connective tissue contains many blood and lymph vessels; contains mucosa associated with lymphatic tissue (MALT)

c. thin layer of smooth muscle that helps mix food and secretions
_____ contains the Submucosal (Meissners) Plexus, part of the Enteric Nervous System that controls the Muscularis Mucosae and secretion of Mucosa; areolar connective tissue
Submucosa
____ contains the Meyenteric (Auerbashs) Plexus, the par of the enteric nervous system that controls motility through the GI tract; mostly smooth muscle, inner layer has circular fibers, outer layer has longitudinal fibers
Muscularis layer
What is Peristalsis?
Successive muscular contractions along the wall of hollow muscular structures.
___ is the outermost layer, also called the Visceral Peritoneum for the portion of the GI tract that lies below the diaphragm.
Serosa layer
Other structures associated with the GI tract:

_____ is the largest serous membrane in the body, consists visceral and parietal layers. The serous fluid in filled space between these layers is called the peritoneal cavity.
Peritoneum
_______ is a large fold of peritoneum that drapes over the transverse colon and small intestine; mostly adipose tissue and lymph nodes.
Greater Omentum
_____ is a peritoneal fold that attaches to the small intestine to the posterior wall of the abdomen; blood and lymphatic vessels (lacteal) are contained within this structure.
Mesentery
____ is a peritoneal fold that attaches the large intestine to the posterior wall of the abdomen.
Mesocolon
What is Ascites?
A disorder associated with the accumulation of excess fluid in the peritoneal cavity.
What is Peritonitis?
A disorder associated with the acute inflammation of the peritoneum. A ruptured appendix is the most common cause.
The Alimentary Canal;

The ____ is the beginning mechanical and chemical digestion.

_____ is cutting and grinding of food into smaller particles.

3 pairs of Salivary Glands (Parotid, Submandibular and Sublingual) which secrete saliva, also contain urea, uric acid, lysozyme, salivary amylase, lingual lipase and various ions.
mouth, mastication
What is a Bolus?
The mass of food produced from oral digestion.
_____ connects the mouth to the esophagus.

What is Deglutition?
pharynx

swallowing- the movement of food from the mouth to the stomach. it is initiated when the bolus of food is forced into the oropharynx. After initial stage the rest of swallowing is usually an involuntary response. Respiration is temporarily suspended.
____ is a collapsible muscular tube connecting the Laryngopharynx to the stomach. it lies behind the trachea. Mostly lined with non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
- very vascular
- a sphincter is at each end to control the passage of food
esophagus
What is Cardiac Sphincter?
Lower esophageal sphincter, this relaxes as food is moved towards the stomach.
Acidy stomach contents move past the cardiac sphincter into the lower esophagus producing "heart burn". In extreme cases this reflux can lead to cancer. Treated by avoiding acid producing foods and acid reducing medicine.
Gastroesphageal Reflux Disease
1. _____: eating and drinking
2. _____: release of fluid and enzymes into the GI tract
3. _____: the movement of material along the GI tract
4. _____: the breakdown of ingested food stuff
5. _____: the passage of digested food and secretions into the blood and lymph
6. _____: the elimination of feces (waste product)
1. ingestion
2. secretion
3. motility
4. digestion
5. absorption
6. defecation
Name and describe the four layers of the GI tract.
1. Mucosa - inner lining

2. Submucosa - areolar connective tissue, contains Submucosal (Meissner) Plexus which is part of the Enteric Nervous System that controls the Muscularis Mucosa and secretion of the Mucosa.

3. Muscularis layer - mostly smooth muscle with skeletal muscle at each end; inner has circular fibers, outer has longitudinal fibers; contains Myenteric (Auerbachs) Plexus, the part of the Enteric Nervous System that controls motility through the GI tract

4. Serosa - outer layer, also known as Visceral Peritoneum, lies below diaphragm
Name and describe the three layers within the Mucosa layer.
1. Epithelium - layer that contacts the food; stratified squamous epithelium at each end, columnar in middle

2. Lamina Propria - areolar connective tissue; contains mucosa associated with lymphatic tissue (MALT)

3. Muscularis Mucosa - this layer of smooth muscle that helps mix food and secretions.
What is peristalsis?
Successive muscular contractions along the wall of the hollow muscular structure.
Describe a Peritoneum.
Its the largest serous membrane in the body and consists of the Visceral and Parietal layers.
What is the Peritoneal Cavity?
The serous fluid filled space between the visceral and parietal layers.
What is the Greater Omentum?
It is a large fold of peritoneum that drapes over the transverse colon and small intestine; mostly adipose tissue and lymph nodes.
What is the difference between a Mesocolon and Mesentery?
Mesocolon is a peritoneal fold that attaches the large intestine to the posterior wall of the abdomen; Mesentery attaches the small intestine to the abdomen; blood and lymphatic vessels (lacteal) are contained with this structure.
This is a disorder that is associated with the accumulation of excess fluid in the peritoneal cavity.
Ascites
This is a disorder associated with the acute inflammation of the peritoneum; a ruptured appendix is the most common cause.
Peritonitis
The mouth cavity (Buccal cavity) contains 32 permanent teeth. It is the beginning of mechanical and chemical digestion. Three pairs of salivary glands: ____,___,____ which secretes saliva, also contains uric acid, urea, lysozyme, salivary amylase, lingual lipase and various ions.
Parotid, Submandibular, Sublingual
What is a bolus?
What is mastication?
A bolus is a mass of food produced from oral digestion.
Mastication is chewing; the cutting and grinding of food into smaller particles.
____ connects the mouth to the Esophagus.
Pharynx
What is Deglutition?
Also known as swallowing; it is the movement of food from the mouth to the stomach; it is initiated when the bolus of food is forced into the esophagus. After the initial stage the rest of the swallowing is usually involuntary. Respiration is temporarily suspended.
_____ is a collapsible muscular tube that connects the Laryngopharynx to the Stomach; it lies behind the trachea.
Esophagus
The Esophagus is mostly lined with _______. Superior 1/3rd contains ____ muscle, inferior 1/3rd contains _____.
non-keratinized stratified squamous epithelium
skeletal, smooth
What is an Esophageal Hiatus?
The opening of the diaphragm for the esophagus.
What is a cardiac sphincter?
The lower esophageal sphincter; this releases as food is moved towards the stomach. A sphincter is at each end to control the passage of food.
The stomach lies inferior to the diaphragm, it contains four regions:
1. Cardia
2. Fundus
3. Body
4. Pylorus
What is rugae?
Large folds in the mucosal layer of the stomach.
What is a Pyloric Sphincter?
Controls the passage of digested food (chyme) into the small intestine.
What is a Mucous Surface Cell?
columnar cells that secrete mucous; these line the lumen of the stomach.
What is a Gastric Pit?
Invagination of mucosal cells into the Lamina Propria.
What are Gastric Glands?
Collections of various secretory cells located at the bottom of the gastric pits.
Name the four types of gastric glands in the stomach:
1. Mucous neck cell
2. Chief Cell
3. Parietal Cell
4. G Cell
What is a Mucous neck cell?
Mucous secreting cell that has some absorption capabilities.
What is a chief cell?
- secrete pepsinogen which is converted to pepsin; pepsinogen is activated by HCl or active pepsin. Pepsin is most effective around ph 2
- also secretes gastric lipase
What is Parietal Cell?
secretes HCl which denatures protein, kills microbes and activates pepsin
- secretes intrinsic factor which attaches to b12, this allows it to be absorbed in the small intestine
What is G Cell?
- mostly located in the pylorus (distal stomach) and secretes the hormone gastrin into the blood
- gastrin stimulates chief and parietal cells, cause the cardiac sphincter to constrict, increases the churning of stomach muscles and relaxes the pyloric sphincter
Regulation of Gastric Motility and Secretion.
Name the three phases.
1. Cephalic phase
2. Gastric phase
3. Intestinal phase
This phase is stimulated by sight, smell, taste and thought. It initiates the secretion of gastric cells and stimulates smooth muscle activity (through CN 10 Vagus nerve)
Cephalic phase
This phase is initiated by both neural and hormonal mechanisms; gastrin is released by distention of the stomach, partially digested protein and caffeine. Stretch and chemoreceptors for pH initiate gastric secretions and the mixing waves in the stomach. Small amounts of chyme are periodically released into the small intestine as the result of muscular contractions.
Gastric phase
This phase tends to slow the release of chyme from the stomach, promoting complete digestion and absorption. Hormonal and neural mechanisms exist.
Intestinal phase
Name and describe the two hormones released by the small intestine.
1. Secretin- released when highly acidic chyme enters the duodenum; promotes bicarbonate ion secretion (raising pH) in the Pancreas and bile.

2. Cholecystokinin CCK- released when partially digested proteins, triglycerides and fatty acids enter the Duodenum; promotes the secretion of pancreatic juice; causes the constriction of the pyloric sphincter and the contraction of the Gall Bladder; induces satiety.
A retroperitoneal gland located posterior to the stomach; has three regions (head, body, tail); the duct runs down the center of the gland, often there is an accessory duct that branches off.
Pancreas
What are Acini?
Clusters of cells that produce pancreatic enzymes.

Acini account for approximately 99% of the Pancreas (exocrine), the rest being Pancreatic Islets (endocrine).
What is Pancreatic Juice made up of?
Mostly water, also contains bicarbonate ions and enzymes.

Enzymes:
- pancreatic amylase for CHO digestion
- proteases (trypsin, chymotrypsin, elastase)
- pancreatic lipase for lipid digestion
- nucleases (ribonuclease, deoxyribonuclease)
This is the largest internal organ (~3lbs) located in the RUQ of the abdomen; highly vascularized with the vessels entering on the inferior surface; made up of 4 lobes.
Liver
Name some of the functions of the liver.
1. Hepatocytes produce a slightly alkaline bile (to emulsify fats)
2. Carbohydrate metabolism
- storage of glycogen
- breakdown of glycogen into glucose
- conversion of lactic acid and amino acids into glucose
3. Lipid metabolism
- triglyceride storage
- cholesterol synthesis, production of hormones and bile salts
4. Protein metabolism
- deamination of amino acids
- produce urea
5. Detoxify drugs and hormones
6. Excretion of bilirubin in the bile
7. Storage of vitamins and minerals
8. Phagocytosis of blood cells and pathogens by Kupffer's cells
9. Synthesis of vitamin D
This is a muscular sac, 3-4" long, that lies on the inferior surface of the liver; stores and concentrates bile.
Gall bladder
Small Intestine extends from _______ to _____.
Pyloric sphincter, ileocecal valve
Sections of the small intestine:

1. _____: the curves around the head of the pancreas and is connected to the pancreas and gall bladder

2. ____: central portion

3. ____: distal and longest portion
1. Duodenum
2. Jejunum
3. Ileum
The Mucosal layer is designed to increase surface area.

a. ______ are structures on the mucosal surface that cause chyme to spiral through the sm. intestine. this promotes digestion and absorption

b. ____ are finger-like projections of the mucosa into the lumen; contains lacteals, arterioles and venules.

c. ____ are cytoplasmic projections on the apical surface of the epithelium, form a "brush border" appearance
a. circular folds, plicae circularis
b. villi
c. microvilli
Other mucosal structures:

1. this structure secrets intestinal juice
2. this structure secretes mucous
3. this structure secretes lysozyme
4. this structure secretes alkaline mucous to neutralize acid
5. these are most concentrated in the distal ileum
1. Intestinal Crypts
2. Goblet cells
3. Paneth cells
4. Duodenal (Brunner's) glands
5. Peyer's Patches
____ is slightly alkaline fluid secreted by mucosal cells that contains various digestive enzymes.
Intestinal Juice
Name the two ways in which the small intestine moves.
1. Segmentation- localized mixing contractions that occur in the distended portions of the small intestine; this mixes chyme with digestive juices and helps bring nutrients into contact with the mucosa.

2. Migrating Motility Complex (Peristalsis)- propelling chyme towards the Ileocecal valve.
What is a Micelle?
When bile salts cause large globs of lipid to beome smaller structures.
What is energy coupling?
Using energy released from an exergonic reaction to drive an endogonic reaction.
What is substrate level phosphorylation?
producing a molecule of ATP by adding a Pi directly to ADP, there is a direct transfer of energy from a substrate to form ATP.
What is Oxidative phosphorylation?
electrons are passed through the electron transport chain to produce enough energy to form more than one ATP, oxygen is used as the final electron acceptor, a molecule of water is formed.
What is Cellular Respiration?
The oxidation of glucose to produce ATP.