A&p Ii Test 3-Lymph & Immunity

Front 1

Functions of the Lymphatic system

Back 1

1. Returns excess interstitial fluid to the cardiovascular system

2. Defense against microorganisms

3. Absorption of dietary lipids from the digestive tract

4. Harbors leukocytes

Front 2

Lymphatic vessels

Back 2

Transport lymph

Leukocyte movement

Front 3

Lymph nodes

Back 3

1. Primary organ of immunity

2. Filter lymph

3. Monitor lymph for pathogens

Front 4

Spleen

Back 4

1. Destroys worn-out erythrocytes

2. Monitors blood for pathogens

3. Reservoir for blood

Front 5

Tonsils 5

Back 5

1. Provides immune activity around oral cavity

2. Traps and digest bacteria and particulate matter

Front 6

Function of Thymus

Back 6

Site of T-cell development

Front 7

Bone marrow

Back 7

1. Site of luekocyte production

2. Site of B-cell development

Front 8

Peyer's patches

Back 8

1. Provides immune surveillance around small intestines

2. Reduce bacterial numbers in GI tract

3. Important for immune development via sampling of gut microbiota

Front 9

Appendix

Back 9

1. Similar function to peyer's patches

2. Harbors beneficial bacterial for recolonizing colon

Front 10

Associated lymphoid tissues (SALT, GALT, MALT)

Back 10

1. Deep to skin and mucous epithelia

2. Concentration of macrophages and lymphocytes in connective tissue

3. Monitor for pathogen breach of skin and mucous membrane

Front 11

What filters lymph?

Back 11

Macrophages & phagocytosis

Front 12

What monitors lymph for pathogens?

Back 12

Lymphocytes & adaptive immunity

Front 13

What destroys worn-out erythrocytes?

Back 13

Macrophages in red pulp

Front 14

What monitors blood for pathogens?

Back 14

Lymphocytes in white pulp

Front 15

What assists in luekocyte production?

Back 15

Hematopoietic stem cells

Front 16

What is the directional flow of lymph?

Back 16

One direction: from the body's tissues towards the heart

Front 17

Pathway of lymph flow

Back 17

1. Tissue interstitial fluid

2. Lymphatic capillaries

3. Lymphatic collecting vessels

4. Lymph nodes

5. Lymphatic collecting vessels

6. Lymphatic trunk

7. Lymphatic ducts

8. Junction of subclavian veins & internal jugular veins

9. Venous return to the right heart

Front 18

What are these areas drained by?

Back 18

A. Drained by right lymphatic duct

B. Drained by thoracic duct

Front 19

For lymph to enter lymphatic capillaries, what would have to be the relationship between the pressure of the interstitial fluid and the pressure inside the Lymphatic system?

Back 19

Interstitial fluid pressure needs to be greater than pressure inside lymphatic system

Front 20

What are lymphatic capillaries?

Back 20

Blind-ended tubes that allow one-way entry of interstitial fluid into the Lymphatic system

Front 21

Characteristics of lymphatic capillaries

Back 21

More permeable (compared to blood capillaries)

Overlapping endothelial cells to form flap-like minivalves which ensures one-way flow of lymph

Front 22

Are lymphatic capillaries more or less permeable during inflammation?

Back 22

More permeable

Front 23

During inflammation, lymphatic capillaries have a greater ability to absorb what?

Back 23

Cellular debris & pathogens

Front 24

Due to high permeability of lymphatic capillaries, what has an easier time entering?

Back 24

Metastatic cancer cells & leukocytes

Front 25

Name the components, and their function, of leukocytes that provides an environment to help in the efficient removal of pathogens

Back 25

Macrophages- phagocytosis; antigen presenting cell

B & T lymphocytes- adaptive immunity response

Dendritic cells- antigen presenting cell

Reticular cells- produce fibers

Reticular fibers- provide framework for immune cell interaction

Front 26

Locations of lymph nodes

Back 26

1. Clustered along lymphatic collecting vessels

2. Major junction points of body parts

3. Along the intestinal tract

Front 27

What do lymph nodes form at major junction points of body parts?

Back 27

Lymph node plexus

Front 28

Lymph nodes primary functions

Back 28

Filter lymph & activate the adaptive immune response

Front 29

3 Steps to filtering lymph

Back 29

1. Lymph enters node through afferent vessels

2. Macrophages phagocytize microbes and cellular debris, while lymphocytes monitor lymph for specific pathogens

3. Lymph exits node though efferent vessels

Front 30

A. What does the Lymphatic system lack that causes its vessels to have extremely low pressure?

B. As a result, lymph flow is assisted by what?

Back 30

A. dedicated pumping organ

B. Contraction of neighboring skeletal muscles (similar to venous return assistance)

Front 31

Immunity is the ability to do what?

Back 31

Defend against pathogens & abnormal host cells

Front 32

Two categories of immunity

Back 32

Innate defense

Adaptive defense

Front 33

Characteristics of innate defense

Back 33

In place from birth

Non-specific

Respond immediately

Front 34

Characteristics of adaptive immunity

Back 34

1. ID specific pathogens/abnormal cells

2. Follow innate response

3. Capability increase with repeat exposure (memory)

Front 35

What category of defense is the First Line of Defense?

Components?

Back 35

Innate defense; Physical barriers:

Intact skin

Intact mucous membranes

Front 36

Forms a continuous dry mechanical barrier to prevent entry of most pathogens and toxins.

What is the component of this function/characteristic?

Back 36

Intact skin &

Intact mucous membrane

Front 37

Secretions are acidic, salty and contains the digestive enzyme, lysozome.

What is the component of this function/characteristic?

Back 37

Intact skin

Front 38

Normal bacterial microbiota out-compete pathogens for space and resources.

What is the component of this function/characteristic?

Back 38

Intact skin &

Intact mucous membrane

Front 39

Sticky mucus traps microbes; ciliary action (in respiratory tract) mechanically removes them.

What is the component of this function/characteristic?

Back 39

Intact mucous membranes

Front 40

A variety of digestive enzymes destroy pathogens (lysozomes, gastric and intestinal enzymes).

What is the component of this function/characteristic?

Back 40

Intact mucous membranes

Front 41

Acidic secretion inhibits growth.

What is the component of this function/characteristic?

Back 41

Intact mucous membrane

Front 42

Dynamic movements (urine & fecal movement, breathing) reduce bacterial numbers.

What is the component of this function/characteristic?

Back 42

Intact mucous membrane

Front 43

Reflex activity (coughing, sneezing, vomiting, diarrhea) increase rate of pathogen clearance.

What is the component of this function/characteristic?

Back 43

Intact mucous membrane

Front 44

What category of defense is the Second Line of Defense?

Components?

Back 44

Innate

Cellular & chemical defenses:

1. Antimicrobial compounds

2. Complement

3. Fever

4. Iron-binding compounds

5. Inflammation

6. Interferons

7. Phagocytes

8. NK cells

Front 45

Function/characteristics in second line of defense

Phagocytes

Back 45

1. Engulf and destroy pathogens & cell debris.

2. Macrophage and dendritic cells process and present antigen for adaptive immunity (APC's).

Front 46

Function/characteristics in second line of defense

NK cells

Back 46

Attack and destroy virally-infected or abnormal host cells (non-specific mechanism).

Front 47

Function/characteristics in second line of defense

Inflammation

Back 47

1. Slows the spread of pathogens,

2. increases blood flow and

3. attracts Phagocytes;

4. stimulates tissue repair.

Front 48

Function/characteristics in second line of defense

Fever

Back 48

Slight increase in body temperature inhibits bacterial growth and increases host metabolic rate.

Front 49

Function/characteristics in second line of defense

Interferons

Back 49

Secreted by virally-infected host cells to slow spread of virus and attract NK cells & Tc cells.

Front 50

Function/characteristics in second line of defense

Complement

Back 50

Plasma protein which enhances inflammation, osponize bacteria and cause lysis of bacteria cells.

Front 51

Function/characteristics in second line of defense

Iron-binding compounds

Back 51

Strongly bind iron to make it less available to pathogens

Front 52

Function/characteristics in second line of defense

Antimicrobial compounds

Back 52

Peroxidases are lethal to bacterial.

Lysozome digest bacterial wall cells.

Front 53

What category of defense is the

Third line of defense?

Components?

Back 53

Adaptive immunity:

1. B lymphocytes

2. Antibodies

3. T lymphocytes

Front 54

Function/characteristics in

third line of defense

B lymphocytes 2

Back 54

memory B cell provide long-term immunity against subsequent infection.

Plasma cells produce antibodies to target specific pathogens for destruction and removal.

Front 55

Function/characteristics in third line of defense

Antibodies

Back 55

Activates complement, neutralizes pathogens & toxins, osponizes bacteria to enhance phagocytosis.

Immune proteins which bind to specific antigen to facilitate its removal.

Front 56

Antibody, IgM

Back 56

Bond to B-cell membranes;

B-cell and complement activation;

Initial antibody response.

Front 57

Antibody; IgG

Back 57

Primary serum antibody;

Crosses the placenta to provide infant with serum immunity;

Activates complement

Front 58

Antibody; IgA

Back 58

Associated with mucous membrane;

Binds antigen to mucus;

found in tears, saliva & mucus;

Secreted in breast milk to provide infant with mucosal immunity

Front 59

Antibody; IgE

Back 59

1. Binds to mast cell and basophil membranes to trigger symptoms of Type I Hypertensitivity

2. Antibody response against worms and other parasites.

Front 60

What is the function/characteristic of this

third line of defense?

T Lymphocytes

Back 60

1. Helper T-cells secrete a variety of cytokines to direct the immune response.

2. Cytotoxic T-cell attacks and destroys virally infected and abnormal host cells

Front 61

Function of neutrophil

Back 61

1. Circulating short-lived phagocyte (~4 days)

2. Most abundant leukocyte; most common Phagocyte

3. Enters tissue during inflammation

4. Ingests and destroys cellular debris and pathogens

Front 62

Function of eosinophil

Back 62

1. Secretes chemicals to attack worms and other parasites

2. Implicated with type I Hypertensitivities

Front 63

Function of basophil

Back 63

1. Secretes histamine to trigger inflammation

2. Causes symptoms of Type I Hypertensitivity

Front 64

Function of monocyte 2

Back 64

1. Circulating phagocyte

2. Matures into macrophage upon entering tissues

Front 65

Function of macrophage

Back 65

Tissue phagocyte; processes and presents antigen to lymphocytes

Front 66

Specialized macrophages

Back 66

Alveolar macrophage: lung macrophage

Dendritic cell: epidermal macrophage

Microglial cell: CNS macrophage

Kupffer cell: hepatic macrophage

Front 67

Function of Natural killer cell (NK cell) as a leukocyte

Back 67

1. Secretes perforins to destroy virally infected or abnormal host cells.

2. Cytotoxic activity is not specific to any particular antigen

Front 68

What is the component of this function?

Effector form coordinates immune activity via cytokine release

Back 68

Help T lymphocyte

TH cell

Front 69

What is the component of this function?

This type of cell activated determines antibody versus cytotoxic cell response.

Back 69

Help T lymphocyte

TH cell

Front 70

What is the component of this function?

These memory cells provides long term immunity against subsequent exposure.

Back 70

B Lymphocytes

B cell

Help T Lymphocyte

TH cell

Cytotoxic T Lymphocyte

TC cell

Front 71

What is the component of this function?

Effector form secretes perforins to destroy virally infected or abnormal host cells.

Back 71

Cytotoxic T lymphocyte

Tc cell

Front 72

What is the component of this function?

This activity is specific to a particular antigen.

Back 72

Cytotoxic T lymphocyte

Tc cell

Front 73

What is the component of this function?

Implicated with Type IV Hypertensitivities and transplant rejection.

Back 73

Cytotoxic T lymphocyte

Tc cell

Front 74

What are the two most common types of Phagocytes?

Back 74

Neutrophil

Macrophage

Front 75

What Phagocytes engulf and digest pathogens and cellular debris?

Back 75

Neutrophil

Macrophage

Front 76

Which phagocyte cannot serve as an antigen presenting cell?

Back 76

Neutrophil

Front 77

Which phagocyte can process and present antigen to activate adaptive immunity?

Back 77

Macrophage

Front 78

Steps to phagocytosis

Back 78

1. Phagocyte bind and engulf antigen into phagosome.

2. Lysosomes fuse with phagosome to make phagolysosome.

3. Antigen & enzymes mix in phagolysosomes.

4. Antigen degrades.

5. Macrophage displays antigen fragments on membrane surface to activate adaptive immunity.

6. Neutrophils void antigen residue via exocytosis

Front 79

What are three primary fundamentals to adaptive immunity? Define them.

Back 79

Specificity- identifies specific pathogens

Memory- protects against subsequent exposure

Self vs non-self- IDs what belongs and what doesn't

Front 80

What molecules trigger an immune response?

Back 80

Antigens

Front 81

What molecule is unique to a certain type of cell or organism?

Back 81

Antigen

Front 82

Antigens can be specifically found where?

Back 82

In B-cell & T-cell receptors

Front 83

The process where body cells display antigen fragments of the pathogen in MHC molecules on their cell membranes

Back 83

Antigen presentation

Front 84

Cell-mediated immunity chart

Back 84

1. T-cell recognizes antigen (via APC)

2a. Helper T-cell activation = macrophage & B-cell activation

2b. Cytotoxic T-cell activation = kill infected or abnormal host cells

3. Helper and cytotoxic = memory cells provide subsequent protection

Front 85

Inflammatory response.

Part 1-effects of inflammatory mediators

Back 85

1. Tissue damage occurs.

2. Damaged & mast cells release inflammatory mediators.

3. Inflammatory mediators trigger:

A. Vasodilation of arterioles causing redness & heat.

B. Increased capillary permeability causing swelling (edema).

C. Pain causing possible loss of function.

D. Recruitment of other cells: Chemotaxis leading to part 2

Front 86

The inflammatory response:

Part 2- phagocyte response

Back 86

1. Local macrophage activated.

2. Neutrophil migrate by Chemotaxis to the damaged tissue and phagocytize bacteria & cellular debris.

3. Monocytes migrate to the tissue by Chemotaxis and become macrophages, which phagocytize pathogens & cellular debris.

4. Bone marrow increases leukocyte production, leading to leukocytosis.

Front 87

T-cell maturation (4 steps)

Back 87

1. Cells of the lymphoid line divide in the bone marrow.

2. Immature T-cells exit the bone marrow and migrate to the thymus.

3. The thymus stimulates T-cell maturation and destroys self-reactive T-cells.

4. Mature naive T-cells migrate to lymphoid organs.

Front 88

A. Examples of antigens from an intracellular source.

B. Examples of antigens from an extracellular source.

Back 88

A. Virus or cancer

B. Bacteria, worms, fungi, protozoa

Front 89

Antigens from an intracellular source are presented via?

Leading to?

Back 89

MHC I molecules

Leading to cytotoxic T-cell activation

Front 90

Antigens from an extracellular source are presented via?

Leading to?

Back 90

MHC II molecules

Leading to helper T-cell activation

Front 91

Antibody-mediated immunity chart

Back 91

1. B-cell recognizes antigen

2. Helper T-cell activates B-cell

3. Plasma cell produces and secretes appropriate antibody. Facilitates antigen clearance.

4. Memory cells provide subsequent protection.

Front 92

B-cell maturation (3 steps)

Back 92

1. Cells of the lymphoid line divide in the bone marrow.

2. B-cells mature in bone marrow, where self-reactive B cells are destroyed.

3. Mature naive B-cells exit the bone marrow and take up residence in lymphoid organs.

Front 93

Antibody structure

Back 93

1. Two arms are antigen binding sites where each end is specific for one type of antigen.

2. The base allows for bonding of host macrophages (only if antigen is bound to ABS)

Front 94

What is formed when antibodies are activated?

Back 94

Immune-complexes with their antigens

Front 95

Describe what occurs during the first exposure to an antigen and what is it called?

Back 95

Called the primary immune response.

Relatively slow

Weak and short lived

Person experiences illness

Front 96

Describe the secondary immune response

Back 96

Much faster

More intense

Longer-lasting

Person typically doesn't experience illness

Front 97

Compare the primary vs secondary immune response

Lag phase

Back 97

Primary longer

Secondary shorter

Front 98

Compare the primary vs secondary immune response

Time until antibody peak

Back 98

Primary- longer time

Secondary- shorter time

Front 99

Compare the primary vs secondary immune response

Primary antibody

Back 99

Primary- IgM

Secondary- IgG

Front 100

Compare the primary vs secondary immune response

Duration of response

Back 100

Primary- shorter duration

Secondary- longer duration

Front 101

Antibody mediated immunity

Active immunity vs passive immunity

Back 101

1. Makes antibodies

2a. Naturally acquired through exposure via infection.

2b. Artificially acquired through vaccination.

3. Memory cell formation and lasting protection.

Front 102

Antibody mediated immunity Active immunity vs passive immunity

Back 102

1. Receives antibodies

2a. Naturally acquired through passage from mother to fetus and in breast milk.

2b. Artificially acquired through injection of antibodies to toxins or venoms.

3. No memory cells formed, no lasting protection

Front 103

What is the most protective form of active and passive antibody mediated immunity?

Back 103

Active immunity, naturally acquired

Front 104

What is the most dangerous way of acquiring immunity?

Back 104

Active, Natural exposure

Front 105

Causes and characteristics/symptoms of Edema

Back 105

Blockage of lymphatic drainage leads to accumulation of intestinal fluids (ISF)

Increase in ISF volume disrupts capillary exchange

Front 106

Causes and characteristics/symptoms of Tonsillitis

Back 106

1. Inflammation of tonsils, caused by bacteria or virus

2. May lead to middle ear infection (ottis media)

3. Removal of tonsils is now rare except in chronic or recurrent cases

Front 107

Causes and characteristics/symptoms of Lymphoma

Back 107

1. Cancer of lymphoid tissues, most commonly lymph nodes

2. Hodgkin's Lymphoma is typically easier to treat than non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma

Front 108

Causes and characteristics/symptoms of Type I Hypersensitivity

Back 108

1. Immediate allergies to harmless allergens

2. B-cells produce excess IgE which binds to mast cells and basophils

3. Subsequent exposure to allergen causes rapid histamine release

4. Anaphylaxis may be mild and local, or systemic and life-threatening

Front 109

Causes and characteristics/symptoms of Type IV Hypersensitivity

Back 109

1. Delayed allergies, taking 2-3 days for symptoms to appear

2. T-cells are sensitized to allergens

3. Contact dermatitis is a typical result

Front 110

Causes and characteristics/symptoms of Autoimmunity

Back 110

1. Immune response against self leafs to tissue destruction

2. Examples of autoimmune disease:

Type I diabetes

Lupus

Rheumatoid arthritis

Graves' disease

Multiple sclerosis

Front 111

Causes and characteristics/symptoms of AIDS

Back 111

1. HIV infects helper T-cell and macrophage

2. Loss of helper T-cell leads to inability to direct the immune response properly

3. Patient succumbs to unusual opportunistic infections and rare cancers

Front 112

Equation for aerobic respiration

Back 112

Front 113

Provisions of C6H12O6

Back 113

Provided by the digestive system and body stores via the blood

Front 114

Provisions of 6O2

Back 114

Provided by the respiratory system via the blood

Front 115

Provision of 6CO2

Back 115

Removed by the respiratory system via the blood

Front 116

Provisions of 6H2O

Back 116

Joins the pool of body water

Front 117

List the events of human respiration in the order of the flow of Oxygen

Back 117

Pulmonary ventilation

Pulmonary gas exchange

Gas transport

Tissue gas exchange

Cellular respiration

Front 118

List the events of human respiration in the order of the flow of carbon dioxide

Back 118

Cellular respiration

Tissue gas exchange

Gas transport

Pulmonary gas exchange

Pulmonary ventilation

Front 119

Describe pulmonary ventilation

Back 119

Breathing

Front 120

Describe pulmonary gas exchange

Back 120

Between lungs and blood

Front 121

Describe gas transport

Back 121

Through blood

Front 122

Describe tissue gas exchange

Back 122

Between blood and respiring tissues

Front 123

Describe cellular respiration

Back 123

ATP synthesis

Front 124

Functions in the Respiratory System

Back 124

1. Assists with venous and lymphatic returned

2. Entry and absorption of oxygen

3. Excretes carbon dioxide

4. Regulates blood pH and blood pressure

5. Smell

6. Vocalization

Front 125

Functions & hormones of the nasal cavity

Back 125

Warms, filters and moistens inhaled air

Dissolution and binding of odorant molecules to trigger olfaction

Front 126

Functions & hormones of the pharynx

Back 126

Channels air to lower respiratory tract

Channels food & drink to esophagus (digestive system)

Front 127

Functions & hormones of the larynx

Back 127

1. Channels air to trachea

2. Superior epiglottis covers glottis to close lower respiratory tract during swallowing

3. Vocal chords produce sound, to be shaped into speech by oral cavity

Front 128

Functions & hormones of the trachea

Back 128

Channels air into bronchi of lung

Remains patent due to cartilage rings in the wall

Front 129

Functions & hormones of the lungs

Back 129

Relatively hollow, filed with branching bronchi, bronchiole & alveoli

Dramatically increases surface area for rapid diffussion of respiratory gases

Front 130

Functions & hormones of the pleura

Back 130

Serous membrane reduces friction between lungs & thoracic cavity wall

Ensures lungs remain inflated against cavity wall due to surface tension and negative pressure gradient

Front 131

Functions & hormones of the bronchi

Back 131

Channel air to the lungs

Remain patent due to cartilage rings/plates in wall

Front 132

Functions & hormones of the bronchioles

Back 132

Channel air into alveoli for gas exchange

Smooth muscle in walls allow for constriction and dilation of lumen

Front 133

Functions & hormones of the alveoli

Back 133

1. Thin-walled air sacs which allow gas exchange with pulmonary capillaries.

2. Type II alveolar cells produce surfactant to minimize surface tension and prevent alveolar collapse.

3. Macrophage phagocytize microbes, particulate matter and cellular debris

Front 134

Functions & hormones of the diaphragm

Back 134

1. Primary inspiratory muscle; pulls downward during contraction.

2. Contraction increases chest volume during inspiration; decreasing intrapulmonary pressure

3. Relaxation decreases chest volume during expiration; increasing intrapulmonary pressure

Front 135

Functions & hormones of the external intercostals

Back 135

1. Inspiratory muscles; pulls outward and upward during contraction.

2. Contraction increases chest volume during inspiration; decreases intrapulmonary pressure

3. Relaxation decreases chest volume during expiration; increases intrapulmonary pressure

Front 136

Functions & hormones of the respiratory epithelium

Back 136

1. Ciliated epithelial mucosa traps particulate matter and microbes.

2. Ciliary action removes mucus with trapped particles (mucociliary escalator).

3. Lines nasal cavity, larynx, trachea, bronchi & bronchioles (but not pharynx)

Front 137

Functions & hormones of the respiratory membrane

Back 137

1. Two layers of simple squamous epithelium with shared basement membrane: Capillary endothelium & type I alveolar cells.

2. Allows rapid diffussion of respiratory gases between alveoli and blood

Front 138

What's included in the upper respiratory tract (URT)?

Back 138

Organs/structures superior to the trachea

Front 139

What's included in the lower respiratory tract (LRT)?

Back 139

Organs/structures inferior to larynx.

Front 140

What determines the pitch we make?

Back 140

The tautness of the true vocal fold cords

Front 141

What determines the loudness we make?

Back 141

The force of air flow through the true vocal folds

Front 142

What allows us to make sounds into speech?

Back 142

Throat

Oral cavity

Front 143

What is the inner trachea and much of the respiratory tree lined with?

Back 143

Mucosa which forms the respiratory epithelium

Front 144

About how many alveoli are there per lung?

Back 144

150 million

Front 145

What do the lungs have that's important for recoiling during expiration? And fluid drainage?

Back 145

Elastic fibers

Lymphatic drainage

Front 146

Right lung is shorter due to?

Left lung is more narrow due to?

Back 146

Inferior liver

Heart

Front 147

Function of Type I alveolar cell

Back 147

Surface for gas exchange

Front 148

Function of Type II alveolar cell

Back 148

Secrete surfactant to reduce surface tension

Front 149

Function of Alveolar macrophage

Back 149

Phagocytize particles and cellular debris

Front 150

Boyles law

Back 150

Volume of gas is inversely proportional to its pressure

Front 151

Intrapleural pressure is how much lower than the atmospherics and intrapulmonary pressure?

Back 151

~4 mmHg

Front 152

When is the intrapulmonary pressure equal to the atmospheric pressure?

Back 152

During pulmonary rest (not inhaling or exhaling)

Front 153

Pressure of intrapulmonary and intrapleural during inspiration

Back 153

Intrapulmonary- decreases

Intrapleural- decreases

Front 154

Pressure of intrapulmonary and intrapleural during expiration

Back 154

Intrapulmonary- increases

Intrapleural- increases

Front 155

5 Steps in inspiration

Back 155

1. Inspiratory muscles contact.

2. Thoracic volume increases.

3. Lung volume increases.

4. Intrapulmonary pressure decreases below atmospheric pressure.

5. Air flows into lungs.

Front 156

5 steps to expiration

Back 156

1. Inhibitory muscles relax.

2. Thoracic volume decreases due to elastic recoil.

3. Lung volume decreases.

4. Intrapulmonary pressure increases to above atmospheric pressure.

5. Air flows out of lungs.

Front 157

What happens to airway resistance and smooth muscles as diameter of airway increases?

Back 157

Airway resistance decreases and smooth muscles relaxes

Front 158

What happens to airway resistance & smooth muscles as diameter of airway decreases?

Back 158

Airway resistance increases and smooth muscles contacts

Front 159

How does surfactant reduce surface tension?

Back 159

It's is amphipathic meaning it has a hydrophilic and hydrophobic parts. This disrupts the hydrogen bonds of the water molecules so the alveoli remains inflated.

Front 160

What is pulmonary compliance and what determines it?

Back 160

Ability of the lungs and chest wall to stretch.

Determined by:

Alveolar surface tension

Distension of elastic lung tissue

Ability of chest wall to move

Front 161

Function of Dorsal Respiratory Group (DRG) nuclei

Back 161

Contains inspiratory center

Establishes rhythmic potentials to stimulate inspiratory muscle contraction

Front 162

Function of ventral respiratory group (VRG) nuclei

Back 162

Contains expiratory center

Inactive during quiet/resting breathing

Front 163

Function of cervical spinal nuclei

Back 163

Motor control over the diaphragm

Front 164

Function of phrenic nerve

Back 164

Carries nerve impulse from the cervical spinal nuclei to the diaphragm

Front 165

Function of the Thoracic spinal nuclei

Back 165

Motor control over the intercostal muscles

Front 166

Function of the intercostal nerves

Back 166

Carries nerve impulse from the thoracic spinal nuclei to the intercostal muscles

Front 167

Homeostasis: response to increase arterial PCO2 and/or H+ concentration by a negative feedback loop

Back 167

Receptor: central chemoreceptors detect increase

Control center: chemoreceptors relay information to DRG; which stimulates the VRG

Effector/response: VRG triggers hyperventilation and additional CO2 is lost

Homeostatic range: feedback decreases VRG simulation

Front 168

Homeostasis: response to decrease arterial PCO2 and/or H+ concentration by a negative feedback loop

Back 168

Receptor: central chemoreceptors retest decrease

Control center: chemoreceptors relay information to DRG; which stimulates the VRG

Effector/response: VRG triggers hypoventilation and additional CO2 is retained

Homeostatic range: feedback decreases VRG simulation

Front 169

How do peripheral chemoreceptors contribute to respiratory control?

Back 169

By providing input about oxygen levels via chemoreceptors in aortic and carotid bodies

Front 170

Description of a Sneeze

Back 170

Forceful expulsion of air through nose due to irritants in nasal cavity

Front 171

Description of cough

Back 171

Forceful expulsion of air against closed glottis due to irritants in the LRT

Front 172

What is partial pressure?

Back 172

The proportion of pressure in a gas mixture, accounted for by an individual gas

Front 173

Four significant gases

Back 173

N2

O2

CO2

water vapor

Front 174

List the PO2 gradient from highest to lowest concentration

Back 174

Atmosphere

Alveoli

Systemic supply

Tissue ECF

Cytoplasm

Front 175

List the PCO2 gradient from highest to lowest concentration

Back 175

Cytoplasm

Tissue ECF

Systemic return

Alveoli

Atmosphere

Front 176

What is pulmonary gas exchange driven by?

Back 176

Standard diffussion based on partial pressure of each individual gas and their pressure gradients

Front 177

How does the respiratory membrane surface area influence gas exchange?

Back 177

Affected directly by number of alveoli

More alveoli = more surface area = more gas exchange

Front 178

How does the thickness of respiratory membrane influence gas exchange?

Back 178

Affected inversely by alveolar wall thickness; often affected by inflammation

Thicker = harder for gas exchange

Front 179

How does ventilation-perfusion matching influence gas exchange?

Back 179

Ventilation of alveoli and capillary blood flow (perfusion) must match

Front 180

Ventilation

Perfusion

Back 180

The amount of air flow to the alveoli

Amount of blood flow to the pulmonary capillaries

Front 181

A. Low PO2 in alveolus

B. High PO2 in alveolus

Back 181

A. Pulmonary arterioles constricts. Less blood flow.

B. Pulmonary arteriole dilates. More blood flow.

Front 182

A. Low PCO2 in arteriole.

B. High PCO2 in arteriole.

Back 182

A. Bronchioles constrict

B. Bronchioles dilate

Front 183

How does Pulmonary gas exchange occur?

Back 183

Movement of respiratory gases between alveoli and blood, across respiratory membrane

Front 184

How does tissue gas exchange occur?

Back 184

Movement of respiratory gases between the blood and respiring tissue, across the capillary endothelium

Front 185

How does Gas transport occur?

Back 185

Moment of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the alveoli and body tissues via the blood

Front 186

Is oxygen and carbon dioxide polar or non polar?

Back 186

Non-polar

Doesn't dissolve well in H2O

Front 187

True or false

Hemoglobin can reversible bind oxygen and carbon dioxide in a pH-dependent manner

Back 187

True

Front 188

True or false

Hemoglobin can reversibly bind CO and oxygen.

Back 188

False

CO competes for oxygen binding sites

Front 189

What is the abbreviation and characteristic of oxyhemoglobin

Back 189

HbO2

Saturated, with four oxygen molecules

Front 190

What is the abbreviation and characteristic of deoxyhemoglobin?

Back 190

HHb

Not fully saturated with oxygen

Front 191

What is the abbreviation and characteristic of Carbaminohemoglobin?

Back 191

HbCO2

Bound with carbon dioxide (to peptide chain)

Front 192

Percentage of O2 bound to hemoglobin

Back 192

98.5%

Oxyhemoglobin

Front 193

Percentage of O2 dissolved in plasma

Back 193

1.5%

Front 194

Percentage of CO2 as bicarbonate

Back 194

70%

Affects plasma pH

Front 195

Percentage of CO2 bound to hemoglobin

Back 195

~20%

Front 196

Percentage of CO2 dissolved in plasma

Back 196

~10%

Front 197

4 steps to loading and unloading of hemoglobin in erythrocytes

Back 197

1. Loading. Oxygen from alveoli bonds to hemoglobin (Hb) in pulmonary capillaries, converting it to oxyhemoglobin (HbO2). H+ released.

2. Oxygen-rich blood travels to the heart, which pumps it to the systemic circulation

3. Unloading. Hb in the systemic capillaries releases oxygen to the tissue cells

4. Oxygen-poor blood returns to the heart, which pumps it back to the pulmonary circulation

Front 198

Distinguish the first 2 points in this oxygen-hemoglobin dissociation curve

Back 198

Lower point: vigorous exercise. Hb unloads most of its O2 in the tissue. Hb entering venous blood is ~25% saturated.

Middle point: resting. Hb unloads ~25% of its O2 to the tissues. Hb in systemic venous blood is ~75% saturated.

Front 199

How is the loading and unloading of oxygen affected by temperature change?

Back 199

Temperature increase causes more O2 unloading

Temperature decrease cause less O2 unloading

Front 200

How is the loading and unloading of oxygen affected by H+ concentration?

Back 200

H+ concentration increase causes more O2 unloading

Front 201

How is the loading and unloading of oxygen affected by PCO2?

Back 201

Increased PCO2 causes more O2 unloading

Front 202

Write the balanced, catalyzed reversible equitation for the conversion of CO2 to bicarbonate

Back 202

Front 203

5 steps in a bicarbonate formation at the respiring tissue (systemic capillary)

Back 203

1. CO2 diffuses from cells into erythrocyte.

2. Carbonic anhydrase catylizes CO2 & H2O and converts them to H2CO3

3. H2CO3 disassociate into HCO3- and H+

4. H+ binds to Hb

5. HCO3- enters the plasma (as Cl enters erythrocyte)

Front 204

3 steps in CO2 formation at the alveoli (pulmonary capillary)

Back 204

1. H2CO3 is re-formed in the erythrocyte.

2. H2CO3 breaks down into H2O and CO2.

3. CO2 diffuses into the alveolus.

Front 205

Summarize respiratory physiology of the lungs

Back 205

1. O2 from inspired air in alveoli diffuses into blood, then erythrocytes

2. O2 binds to deoxyhemoglobin in erythrocyte.

3. Oxyhemoglobin releases H+

4. O2 is transported through systemic blood to tissue cells

Front 206

Summarize the steps of respiratory physiology of the tissues

Back 206

1. CO2 diffuses from tissue cells into blood, then erythrocytes

2. CO2 + H2O =H2CO3, catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase

3. H2CO3 = H+ + HCO3-

4. HCO3- diffuses into plasma, Cl diffuses into erythrocyte

5. Some CO2 binds to hemoglobin (carbaminohemoglobin)

6. H+ causes slight reduction in cytoplasmic pH of RBCs

7. Reduced pH in erythrocytes reduces hemoglobin's affinity for O2.

8. O2 is released and diffuses into tissue cells.

9. H+ binds to deoxyhemoglobin

Front 207

Summarize respiratory physiology of the lungs when CO2 is released

Back 207

1. Release of H+ from oxyhemoglobin causes HCO3- to enter erythrocytes; Cl- diffuses into plasma

2. H+ + HCO3- = H2CO3

3. H2CO3 = CO2 + H2O, catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase

4. Higher PCO2 in blood causes diffussion of CO2 into alveoli expiration

Front 208

Effects of age to the respiratory system

Back 208

1. Respiratory epithelium thins especially with exposure to pollutants

2. Fibrous tissue accumulate

3. Loss in elasticity

4. Retain more stale air

5. Reduces O2 availability and increases CO2 retention

6. Alveolar surface area decreases

Front 209

H+ in erythrocyte causes slight reduction in...

Back 209

Cytoplasmic pH in RBCs

Front 210

Reduced pH in erythrocytes reduces...

Back 210

hemoglobin's affinity for O2

Front 211

Name the 5 oxygen imbalances

Back 211

Hypoxia

Anemic hypoxia

Hypoxemic hypoxia

Ischemic hypoxia

Cyanosis

Front 212

Causes & characteristics/symptoms of hypoxia

Back 212

Oxygen deficiency in a tissue

Inability to use oxygen

Front 213

Causes & characteristics/symptoms of Hypoxemic hypoxia

Back 213

State of low arteriole PO2 due to inadequate pulmonary gas exchange

Causes: high elevation, downing, respiratory arrest

Front 214

Causes & characteristics/symptoms of ischemic hypoxia

Back 214

Inadequate blood circulation

Causes: congestive heart failure, infarction, stroke

Front 215

Causes & characteristics/symptoms of anemic hypoxia

Back 215

Blood's inability to carry adequate oxygen

Cause: anemia

Front 216

Causes & characteristics/symptoms cyanosis

Back 216

Blueness of the skin

Sign of hypoxia; most noticeable in nail beds and lips

Front 217

Causes & characteristics/symptoms of pneumothorax

Back 217

Presence of air in the pleural cavity, often from a penetrating chest wound.

Loss of negative pressure causes lung collapse.

Front 218

Causes & characteristics/symptoms of acute rhinitis

Back 218

Common cold, caused by several respiratory viruses.

Symptoms: Congestion, sneezing, runny nose, and dry cough

Front 219

Causes & characteristics/symptoms of pharyngitis

Back 219

Sore throat, most commonly formed by viral infection

Streptococcal pharyngitis (strep throat) is less common, but more of a concern

Front 220

Causes & characteristics/symptoms of pneumonia

Back 220

Lower respiratory tract infection, typically bacterial or viral.

Causes accumulation of fluid in alveoli and thickening of respiratory membrane

Front 221

Causes & characteristics/symptoms of tuberculosis

Back 221

Caused by infection with Mycobacterium tuberculosis

After phagocytosis by macrophage, lungs form fibrous nodules to isolate bacteria

Front 222

Causes & characteristics/symptoms of asthma

Back 222

Most commonly triggered by allergens

Inflammation results in bronchospasms and increased mucus production

Front 223

Causes & characteristics/symptoms of cystic fibrosis

Back 223

1. Mutation results in lack of chloride ion transport proteins

2. Mucus in respiratory tract becomes dehydrated and sticky

3. Respiratory passages becomes clogged with mucus

4. Clogs secretory ducts of the pancreas (digestive)

Front 224

Causes & characteristics/symptoms of emphysema

Back 224

1. Chronic infections lead to breakdown in alveolar structure

2. Results in decreased respiratory membrane for gas exchange

3. Lungs become fibrotic and lose their elasticity (reduced compliance)

Front 225

Causes & characteristics/symptoms of lung cancer

Back 225

1. Most commonly caused by tobacco smoke (fist and second hand)

2. Tumors invade bronchial wall and compress airways

3. Metastasis is rapid, with diagnosis typically occurring after metastasis begins

Front 226

Causes & characteristics/symptoms of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)

Back 226

1. Chronic obstruction of airways reduces pulmonary ventilation

2. Associated with chronic bronchitis and emphysema

3. Results in hypoxia and respiratory acidosis

Front 227

Causes & characteristics/symptoms of pulmonary embolism

Back 227

Thrombosis in systemic veins (DVT in legs) results in embolism in the lungs.

Blockage of blood flow to lungs reduces oxygen exchange, causing hypoxia.

Front 228

Causes & characteristics/symptoms of pulmonary edema

Back 228

1. Occurs when right ventricle output exceeds left ventricle output.

2. Back-pressure into pulmonary circulation causes fluid accumulation in lungs.

3. Often occurs with congestive heart failure on the left side

Front 229

Function of the blood

Back 229

Transport gases, nutrients, wastes & hormones

Front 230

Function of the heart

Back 230

Pumps blood through body

Front 231

Function of the arteries

Back 231

Carries blood from heart to body tissues

Front 232

Function of the veins

Back 232

Carries blood from body tissues to the heart

Front 233

Function of the capillaries

Back 233

Location of exchange between blood and body tissues

Front 234

Function of the hypothalamus

Back 234

Overall control of homeostasis

Simulates pituitary hormone secretion

Front 235

Function of the pituitary gland

Back 235

Simulates hormone secretion from other endocrine glands

Control of growth

Front 236

Function of the thyroid gland

Back 236

Metabolic control

Calcium homeostasis

Front 237

Function of the parathyroid gland

Back 237

Calcium homeostasis

Front 238

Function of the adrenal gland

Back 238

Fight or flight response

Metabolic control

Blood pressure control

Front 239

Function of the pancreas

Back 239

Blood glucose homeostasis

Front 240

Functions of the integumentary system

Back 240

1. Protects body from dehydration, microbial invasion, and abrasion

2. Synthesizes vitamin D

3. Tactile receptors (cutaneous senses)... touch, pain, pressure, temp

4. Thermoregulates via sweating and vascular changes

5. Excretes metabolic waste and excess electrolytes (when sweating)

6. Reservoir for blood (due to high number of dermal vessels)

Front 241

Functions of the skeletal system

Back 241

1. Provides support and protection for various organs

2. Provides leverage for movement

3. Stores minerals and lipids

4. Produces blood cells

Front 242

Functions of the muscular system

Back 242

1. Provides force for movement

2. Maintains posture and body position

3. Stabilizes joints

4. Supports soft tissues

5. Produces heat for thermoregulation

Front 243

Functions of the nervous system

Back 243

1. Coordinates body functions

-sensory input

-integration

-motor output

2. Control is fast-acting but short-lived

Front 244

Functions of the endocrine system

Back 244

Coordinates body function, most commonly to maintain homeostasis

Control of slow-acting but long-lasting via hormones

Effects are often systemic

Front 245

Function of the cardiovascular system

Back 245

Transports nutrients, wastes, hormones, and respiratory gases

Maintains Balance and composition of interstitial fluids via capillary exchange