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112 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What compounds do cells use as fuel for resynthesizing ATP?
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breaking of covalent bonds in
-monosaccharides -fatty acids -amino acids |
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ATP Hydrolysis
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breaking of ATP to yield a molecule of ADP and a Phosphate
--> releases energy |
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What are the begining and ending products of cellular respiration?
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Glucose + 6 O2 --> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + energy
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What are the 3 phases of Cellular Respiration?
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-Glycolysis
-Krebs (Citric Acid) Cycle -Electron Transport Chain |
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Where does Glycolysis occur, under what conditions and what are the products?
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-occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell
-does not require oxygen (therefore does not require mitochondria) -2 net ATP, 2 Pyruvic Acid (Pyruvate), 2 NADH |
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What is lactic acid?
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-product of Anaeorobic respiration (Fermentation)
-what accumulates in the skeletal muscles causing muscle fatigue, soreness, partial denaturing of proteins in muscles |
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What is the Intermediate Step?
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In cellular respiration, between glycolysis and Kreb's Cycle
-pyruvic acid become acetic acid, which is oxidized to make Acetyl CoA products: 2 CO2, 2 NADH, 2 Acetyl CoA |
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What is the Kreb's Cycle
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part of cellular respiration, occurs after the intermediate step
-takes place in the matrix of the mitochondria -products: CO2, 2 net ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH |
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What is the Electron Transport Chain?
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part of cellular respiration
-occurs across the inner mitochondrial membrane products: 28-30 ATP |
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What is ATP Synthase?
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an integral membrane protein in the inner mitochondrial membrane
-acts as a H+ channel -acts as an enzyme using energy released from flow of H+ to synthesize ATP from ADP & P |
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What are the Four primary tissue classes?
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-Epithelial tissue
-Connective tissue -Muscular tissue -Nervous tissue |
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Interstitial fluid
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the extracellular fluid surrounding the cells within the tissue
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Histology
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the study of tissues and how they form organs
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Where is Epithelial Tissue found and what are its functions?
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covers entire surface of the body (skin, lining of lungs, digestive, urinary & reproductive tracts, etc)
-controls enrty & exit of substances -primary tissue type found in glands (ie: exocrine and endocrine glands) |
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What is the structure of Epithelial tissue?
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-epithelial cells connected to adjacent cells by proteins called tight junctions
-Made up of 3 layers: -Apical surfaces -Basal surfaces -Basement membrane |
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What are tight junctions?
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protein found in epithelial tissue that connect the epithelial cells to make tissue leak-proof
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Apical Surfaces
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-found in epithelial tissue
-surface that faces the outside of the body |
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Basal surfaces
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-found in epithelial tissue
-surface that faces the inside of the body |
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Basement membrane
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-found in epithelial tissue
-membrane that anchors the cells to the body |
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How is Epithelial tissue classified?
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-based on the shape of the cell (squamous, cuboidal, columnar)
-based on the number of layers of cells (simple, stratified, pseudostratified) |
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Pseudostratified
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-refers to one layer of epithelial tissue that is made of different cell types (ie: squamous, cuboidal, columnar)
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What is Connective tissue?
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-most abundant and variable tissue type
-composed of widely spaced cells separated by fibers and ground substance -four primary types (Connective tissue proper, Cartilage, Bone & Blood) |
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What are the 3 types of cartilage?
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Hyaline (nose)
Fibrocartilage (intervertebral discs) Elastic (ear, tubes such as larynx etc) |
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What are the functions of Connective tissue?
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-connects organs together
-support and protection -storage of energy -heat production -transport of materials |
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What are the 3 structural elements of Connective tissue?
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-Ground substance
-Fibers -Cells |
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What is ground substance?
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unstructured, gel-like material, fills space between cells of connective tissue
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What are fibers?
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very large proteins outside of the cells of connective tissue that form a web-like structure, hold tissue together
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What are the 3 types of fibers?
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-Collagen
-Elastic -Reticular |
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What is Collagen?
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-a fiber found in connective tissue
-very thick and strong -does not stretch -provides tough structure to tissue |
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What is Elastic fiber?
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-a fiber found in connective tissue
-thin and strong -stretches and recoils -made from the protein Elastin |
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What is Reticular fiber?
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- a fiber found in connective tissue
-thin collagen fibers -provide delicate structure to tissue |
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What is the extracellular matrix of connective tissue composed of?
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Ground substance & fibers
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What are the 4 cell types responsible for making the 4 different types of connective tissue?
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-Fibroblasts- connective tissue proper
-Chondroblasts- cartilage -Osteoblasts- bone -Hemocytoblasts- blood |
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What are the 2 types of connective tissue proper?
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Loose and Dense connective tissue proper
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What is the Integrumentary System and what are its functions?
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-the skin
-largest organ of the body, makes up 15% of body weight -protects the body -regulates body temp -sensation -consists of 3 regions Epidermis, Demis, Hypodermis |
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What are the layers of the Epidermis?
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5 strata:
-Stratum basale -Stratum spinosum -Stratus granulosum -Stratum lucidum -Stratum conreum |
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What kind of cells make up the epidermis?
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-composed of stratified squamous epithelium
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What is Stratum Basale?
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-deepest of the strata
-has 3 types of cells: melanocytes, merkel cells, keratinocytes -divide rapidly to replace cells lost by exfoliation |
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What is the Stratum Spinosum?
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-several layers thick
-has 2 cell types: keratinocytes and langerhans |
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What is Stratum Granulosum?
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-3-5 cell layers thick
-made of keratinocytes |
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What is Stratum Lucidum?
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-thin, transluscent zone
-consists of dead cells, no nucleus or organelles (doesn't stain well) |
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What is the Stratum Conreum?
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-outermost strata
-made of keratinsized cells -30 layers of dead keratinocytes |
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What is the Dermis?
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The middle region of the skin
-contains strong, flexible connective tissue, sensory cells, hair, blood vessels and glands |
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What are the 3 types of glands?
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-sweat glands
-sebaceous glands -ceruninous glands |
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What are sweat glands?
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-glands that secrete water to cool the body found in the Dermal layer of the skin
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What are sebaceous glands?
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-glands that secrete oil to soften the skin, found int he dermal layer
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What are ceruninous glands?
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-glands that secrete wax, maintain eardrum, found in the dermal layer of the ear
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What are the 2 layers of the Dermis?
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Papillary layer- superficial
Reticular layer- deep (responsible for most of the skin's thickness) |
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What is the Hypodermis and what are the functions?
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-deepest region of the skin
-made up of adipose and areolar connective tissues -functions to cushion and insulate the body |
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General bone info
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-can be referred to as a tissue or organ
-bones referred to as connective tissue are capable of growth and repair (consist of cells & extracellular matrix -bones referred to as organ consist of: -osseous tissue and nervous tissue -epitheliald and muscle tissue (contain blood vessels) |
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What are the functions of bone?
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-support
-protection -movement -mineral storage -blood cell formation |
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What is the gross anatomy of bones?
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-compact bone- dense
-spongy bone- porous, spaces filled with red bone marrrow |
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What is the Diaphysis?
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-one of the structures of long bones
-the shaft -compact bone |
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What is the Epiphyses?
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-one of the structures of the long bones
-expanded ends of bones -exterior is compact -interior is spongy -surface is covered by articular cartilage |
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What is the Epiphyseal Line?
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-the location of bone lengthening on the Epiphyses
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What are the 2 surfaces of bone covered with a thin layer of connective tissue?
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-Periosteum-covers the most superficial surface
-Endosteum- covers the surface of the medullary cavity of long bones |
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What is bone remodeling?
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-the process of increasing and decreasing amount of bone tissue by the endosteum and periostem
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What is the composition of bone?
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-hydroxyapatites -Calcium and phosphorus mineral deposits (responsible for bone hardness)
-fibers- collagen (provides ability for slight flexing without breaking) |
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What are the 3 cell types of osseous tissue cells?
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-osteoblasts
-osteoclasts -osteocytes |
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What are osteoblasts?
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one of the cells of osseous tissue
- cells that increase bone density |
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What are osteoclasts?
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one of the cells of osseous tissue
-cells that decrease bone density |
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What are osteocytes?
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one of the cells of osseous tissue
-cells surrounded by matrix, do not make or break down matrix |
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What is the basic structural unit of bone?
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osteon, many osteon make up a bone
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What are Lamellae?
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plates of bone arranged about the central canal, hold blood vessels and nerves paralell to the longest dimension of the bone
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What are Canaluculi?
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tiny cracks in the lamellae that connect the osteocytes and blood supply to the bone
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Volkmann Canals
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run perpendicular to the central canals joining them to blood and nerve supply at the superficial surface of the bone
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How do you define a joint or articulation?
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site where two or more bones meet
-structurally the weakest part of the skeleton |
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What are the functions of articulations?
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-provide mobility to skeleton
-hold skeleton together |
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fulcrum
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refers to the joint, pivot point
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levers
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refer to the associated bones of the joint
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What is the resistance arm?
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the distance between the load and the fulcrum
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What is the effort arm?
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the distance between the muscle attachment point and the fulcrum
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Functional Classification of Joints:
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Synthroses - immovable
Amphiarthroses- slightly movable Disathroses- freely movable |
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Structural Classification of Joints:
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-Synovial
-Fibrous -Cartilaginous |
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What is a Synovial Joint?
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a joint where the articulating bones are seperated by a joint capsule filled with synovial fluid- freely moveable, include limb joints
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What is a Fibrous Joint?
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bones joined by dense connective tissue containing high amounts of collagen, no joint capsule, most are immovable, include joints of the skull
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What is a Cartilaginous Joint?
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bones joined by cartiage, no joint cavity, most are slightly moveable, include intervertebral discs
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At Resting Membrane Potential is the state of the ICF?
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-70mV (unstimulated cell)
-ICF is negatively charged -low Na+ conc. -HIGH K+ conc. -steady state condition |
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What creates an electrical potential between ICF and ECF?
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an uneven distribution of charged substances
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What are the charged substances of the cell?
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Impermeable: large neg. charged proteins & nucleic acids in ICF
Permeable: Na+ & K+ ions (constantly being pumped across) |
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What are Gated Ion Channels?
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imbedded in cell membrane
-allow 1 or 2 substances across at a time -open when stimuli are applied to cell -allow ions to diffuse rapidly across membrane (faster than ion pumps) causing cell membrane potential to deviate from resting value |
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Hyperpolarization
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when the ICF becomes more negative with the flow of ions
- |
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Depolarization
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when the ICF become less negative with the flow of ions
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Types of Gated Ion Channels
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-Ligand-gated channels
-Stretch-gated channels -Voltage-gated channels |
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What are Ligand-gated channels?
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open when a specific chem. bind to extracellular portion of channle
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What are Stretch-gated channels?
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open when plasma membrane is stretched
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What are Voltage-gated channels?
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open when membrane potential deviates from resting and reaches a specific voltage
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What are Effectors?
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respond to stimulus- consist of muscles and glands at a location other than the site of the stimulus
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What make the transfer of electrical impulses possible over long distances?
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neurons
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What are neurons capable of?
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-initiating electrical impulses
-changing resting membrane potential of other cells including: other neurons, muscles and glands |
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Neuron Anatomy
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Dendrites
Body Axon |
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What are dendrites
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branched appendages of a neuron, recieve stimuli, respond by opening gated channels
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What is the Body of the neuron, and what's another name for it?
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-also called the "soma"
-location of organelles -location of stretch & ligand-gated channels -can also recieve stimuli -opens gated channels |
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What is the axon?
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long extension of the neuron cell body, can branch many times
-sends electrical impulses to other cells in the body -location of voltage-gated channels |
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What is a Graded (Local) Potential?
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a change in membrane potential caused by the opening of stretch or ligand-gated channels (causes either depolarization or hyperpolarization)
-a brief or localized change caused by a small stimuli |
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What is the function of graded potentials?
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to cause or prevent the opening of voltage-gated ion channels in the axon which causes an action potential
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What is absolute refractionary period?
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the time during an action potential when another action potential CANNOT be initiated no matter what the stimulus
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What is the relative refractionary period?
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the time after the absolute refractionary period until membrane potential returns to resting (during which another action potential CAN be initiated)
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What affects the velocity of an action potential?
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-axon diameter (larger the diameter, greater the velocity)
-the presence of a myelin sheath |
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What is a myelin sheath?
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white fatty covering formed by Schwann cells surrounding the axon
-provides insulation -greatly speeds up velocity of action potential |
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What are the nodes of Ranvier?
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-gaps between Schwann cells on the axon (naked axon segments)
-ONLY location of voltage-gated Na+ & K+ channels -ONLY location where action potential can be generated along the length of the axon -results in much faster conduction rate due to jumping of impulse to nodes |
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What is the synapse?
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spaces between 2 cells where impulse is transmitted
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What is a chemical synapse?
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space between the axon terminal and the RECEPTOR region
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What is Saltatory Conduction?
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jumping of action potentials from node to node along the axon
-results in a much faster conduction rate compared to unmyelinated axons |
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What is threshold?
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the minimun amount of depolarization required to initiate an action potential
-typically -55mV |
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What are the parts of a chemical synapse?
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axonal terminal of presynaptic neuron
-contains synaptic vesicles filled with a neurotransmitter (chemical) -receptor region on postsynaptic cell which contains ligand-gated channels -synaptic cleft- fluid filled space between cells |
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What is a postsynaptic potential?
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the opening of ligand-gated channels on the postsynaptic cell by the diffusion of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic cell
-a graded potential occurs causing depolarization or hyperpolarization |
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Name the 2 types of postsynaptic potentials:
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-EPSP- excitatory postsynaptic potentials
-IPSP- inhibitory postsynaptic potentials |
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What is EPSP?
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excitatory postsynaptic potential
-a depolarizing graded potential (becomes less neg) -membrane potential moves toward threshold -increases chances of ap -a single EPSP CANNOT cause an AP -must summate to reach threshold |
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What is IPSP?
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inhibitory postsynaptic potential
-a hyperpolarizing graded potential (becomes more neg) -membrane potential moves away from threshold -reduces chances of action potential -can summate with EPSPs to cancel them out |
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What is Temporal Summation?
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when postsynaptic potentials are generated at a single location at a high frequency
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What is Spatial Summation?
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when postsynaptic potentials are generated at different locations at the same time
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