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213 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Blood and Homeostasis
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transports O2 and CO2, nutrients, hormones, and immune cells
-helps to regulate pH and temperature. |
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Blood Components:
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-its dense and viscous
-average temperatureis 38 degrees c, about 100.4 degrees f. -pH is 7.35- 7.45 -blood volume for men is 5-6 L, for women, 4-5 L -consists of plasma and solid components -Bloos is about 8% of body weight |
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Average temp fo blood?
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38 degrees C, 100.4 degrees F
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Blood pH?
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7.35-7.45
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Blood volume for men and women?
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Men: 5-6 L
Women: 4-5 L |
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Plasma (basics)
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-Extra Cellular Matrix, dissolved substance
-55% of blood -contains |
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Proteins found in plama:
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-albumins: allow cells of the body to contain a good pH.
-immunoglobins (antibody) -fibrogen: part of clotting cascade -others |
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The other solutes found in in plasma:
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-electrolytes
-nutrients -gas -waste |
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Solid elements of blood:
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Platelets, RBC, WBC
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how many platelets?
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150,000 - 400,000 mL (cc) of blood
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how many RBC?
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4.8 - 5.4 million
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how many WBC?
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5 - 10,000
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Granulocytes are?
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neutrophils, basphils, eosinophils. mast cells
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Agranulocytes are?
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monocytes and lymphocytes (b and t cells)
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Thrombocytes
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these are platelets
-smallest formed element -important in clotting cascade |
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RBC (description and structure)
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-live for about 120 days
-hemoglobin is found in the center -4 heme groups that have iron (Fe2+) |
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one molecule of hemoglobin is capable of carrying how many oxygen?
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4 oxygens
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1 heme =
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1 oxygens
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RBC Formation
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-disruption of homeostasis
-receptors on kidneys detect the low levels of O2, causing kidneys to release Erythroprotein (EPO) -red bone marrow increases RBC production, sending the body back to homeostasis |
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hematocrit:
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% of blood volume that is RBC
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hematocrit of females:
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38 - 46%
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hematocrit of males:
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40 - 54%
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erythropoitin
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kidneys release to increase RBC production
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Anemia:
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low RBC, you test for anemia by testing the persons hematocrit
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Polycythemia
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abnormal high RBC percentage
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What can polycythemia result in?
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high blood pressure, blood viscosity, stroke, or myocardial infarction (heart attack)
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Hemostasis
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process that stops bleeding
1) vascular spasm 2) platelet plug 3) blood clotting and coagulation |
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vascular spasms
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-smooth muscle is arranged in a circle, and contracts
-this reduces the amount of blood you lose. -this is a reflex reaction (autonomic) |
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first step in platelet plug formation:
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-platelets contract and stick to damaged area
-collagen & connective tissue = platelet adhesion |
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second step in platelet release reaction:
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platelet release reaction
-platelets get activated (gets projections on it) because its trying to form a net with other platelets. -they extend their projectons making the met -they empty their vesicles, emptying ADP and Thromboxane A2, which activates other platelets. |
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third step in platelet plug formation
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Platelet Aggregation
-RBC are trapped in the clustered platelets. |
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Fibrin
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this is the mesh network of the activated platelets.
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Clotting factors
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Ca2+, enzymes -> platelets or damaged vessels
-clotting is an enzymatic cascade ->fibrin |
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3 general steps to clotting:
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1) 2 pathways: extrinsic or intrinsic ... either way an enzym called prothrombinase is activated
2) Prothrombinase is converted to prothrombine, then the prothrombine is modified into thrombine. 3) Thrombine is converted into fibrin -fibrin makes the net that catches red blood cells that dry out, making the clot formation. |
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Prothrombine
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protien found in plasma.
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Clot retraction
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a tightening of the net formation so it doesnt rupture before its healed
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what viamin do you need for clotting pressure?
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Vitamin K (or potassium)
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Anticoagulants
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affect clotting by stopping it
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Types of anticoagulants:
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Heparin and Warfin
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Heparin (type of anticoagulant)
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used on open heart surgeries
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Warfin (type of anticoagulant)
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a vitamin K antagonist ehich prevents the synthesis of enzymes
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Intravascular Clotting
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clotting in unbroken vessel, which leads to thrombus (clots)
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Thrombus
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clots
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embolus
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blood clot, air bubbles, debris ...
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Pulmonary embolism
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when embolus is in the lungs
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DVT
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deep vein thrombosis (most common in legs) lots od muscle pain
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Stroke
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a blood clot in the brain
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Asprin
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decreases clotting (stops the first two steps: vascular spasm and platelet aggregation)
-reduces risk of transient aschemic attacks |
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Waht determiines blood groups?
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suface markers; antigens called AGGLUTINS
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name the blood types
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A, B, AB, O. (+ and - for each)
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heart location:
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in pericardial cavity
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heart size
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12 cm long, 9 cm wide, 6 cm deep
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heart weight:
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females: 250g or 8oz
males: 300g or 10 oz |
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Mediastinum
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a tissue mass from sternum to vertebral column
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Apex
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anterior, inferior, to the left (bottom)
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Base (or heart)
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posterior, superior, to the right (top)
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CPR:
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Cardo Pulmonary Resusitation
-pressing against sternum, pushing against vertebral wall |
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Pericardium:
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membrane that surrounds and protects the heart, also allows it to move/contract
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2 parts of pericardium:
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fibrous and serous
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Fibrous part of pericardium:
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superficial, tough structure, dense irregular tissue, prevents from over-stretching.
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Serous part of pericardium:
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thinner, forms double-layer, deeper, more fragile, 2 layers are the visceral and parietal layer -> this one is fused to the fibrous layer, visceral layer adheres to heart wall
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Pericardial Fluid:
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reduces friction, sounds like a rubbing or cracking
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Pericarditis
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inflammation of the pericardium
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Epicardium consists of the :
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fibrous, parietal, and visceral layers
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serous consists of:
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parietal and viseral layers
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myocarditis
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inflammation of cardiac muscle
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endocarditis
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problems with valves
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Auricle (heart)
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wrinkled, puch-like structure; increased capacity of atrium to hold more blood
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Sulci:
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grooves contain coronary blood vessels and fat
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Coronary Sulcus
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divides anteriorally, goes across the heart diagonally separating the atrias and the ventricles
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anterior intraventricular sulcus
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boundry between the right and left ventricle, it continues into posterior intraventricular sulcus
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Right atrium recieves blood from 3 veins ..
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-superior vena cava
-inferior vena cava -coronary sinus |
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superior vena cava brings blood from ..
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your head
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inferior vena cava brings blood from ...
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your trunk (shoulders down)
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coronary sinus brings blood from...
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the heart
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texture of posterior wall of heart:
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smooth
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texture of anterior wall of heart:
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rough, from pectinate muscles (to increase surface area)
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Intraatrial septum
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between L + R atriums, with the depression, fossa ovalis
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Fossa Ovalis
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it used to be a hole for a fetus, mixing the blood, but it closes when the baby is born, so it just becomes a depression
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Tricuspid Valves
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3 leaflets or cusps; they're extensions of the endocardium. * blood goes from the right atrium to the right ventricle through the tricuspid valves*
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Right Ventricle
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most anterior portion of the heart
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Trabeculae Carneae
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raised bundles of cardiac muscle
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how are tricuspid valves attached to the walls of the heart?
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by chordae tendinae
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what are the chordae tendinae attached to?
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the trabeculae carneae
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Papillary Muscles
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also what chordae tendinae connect to
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Pulmonary Trunk
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vessel from which pulmonary artieries come from
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Pulmonary Veins
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oxygen rich blood
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left atrium
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different from right atrium in which both walls are smooth
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Biscupsid valve
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2 cusps, located between L atrium and L ventricle, connected by chordae tendinae to papillary muscles
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Left Ventricle
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makes up most of the Apex, has the thickest part of Myocardium (greater force, since its pumping to the rest of the body)
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Operation of Atrioventricular Valves (tricuspid and bicuspid):
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when its open, cusps (pointed end) project into the ventricle.
-when ventricles are relaxed, chordae tendinae are slacked, and the valves are open. -when the ventricles contract, chordae tendinae are taught, cusps close *think of it like a drawstring hoodie* |
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Operation of Semi- Lunar Valves
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-located between the ventricles and vessels
-these cusps attach to arterial wall -when ventricles contract, the elastic atrieries expand, opens the cusps -when ventricles relax, blood flows back into convex cusp, valves close. **they only open when the pressure in the ventricles exceeds the pressure in the arteries.** |
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what does it sound like if you have damage to your valves?
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"gurggling"
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Stenosis
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narrowing of heart valve opening
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insufficiency
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failure of valves to completely close
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cardiac muscle has a ______ and ______ diameter than skeletal muscle
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shorter and smaller
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intercalated discs in cardiac muscle
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they connect surrounding fibers; they are a thickening of the sarcolemma.
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desmosomes
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connection point bewtween cells, that move through gap junctions
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why do you have more mitochondria in cardiac muscle?
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because you do not want lactic acid build-up in the heart (you don't want your heart to be physically sore)
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Autorhythmic fibers:
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conduction system that provides the beating of the heart.
-it generates AP to cause heart to contract |
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2 basic functions of autorhythmic fibers:
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1) pacemaker function; meaning it sets a rhythm of electrical excitation that causes heart to contract
2) forms conduction system; provides a network for electrical signal to follow, that leads to contraction |
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what do the functions of autorhythmic fibers allow?
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they allow cardiac muscle to contract in an orderly function
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5 steps to the cardiac cycle:
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1)excitation begins at the Sinatrial Node (SN)
-has ability to to spontaneously depolorize -once pacemaker potential is reached, you get an AP -contraction of atria 2) By conducting through atria, AP reaches atrioventricular node (AV node) - delays contraction of ventricles 3) AP moves through AV nodeinto AV bundles 4) AP moves to R + L bundle branches 5) Excitation of Purkinjie Fibers (large diameters) *SA nodes initiates an AP -AcH effects heart rate by decreasing it -SA nodes detects the rhythm |
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where is the Sinatrial node (SA node) located?
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just inferior to superior vena cava
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how does the excitiation in the cardiac cycle have the abiltiy to spontaneously depolarize?
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because theres no stable resting membrane potential
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what is another name for the AV bundles?
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bundles of His
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how is resting heart rate controlled?
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by the autonomic nervous system
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how does AcH affect heart rate?
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it decreses heart rate
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What does the Autonomic Nervous System release when you excersize andincrease heart rate?
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epinephrine
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Electrocardiogram (EKG/ECG) basic facts
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-measures forces to depolarization and repolarization
-measures heart rate -amplifies heart signal -monitors cardiac cycle |
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4 things you can determine through and EKG:
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1) normal conduction pathway
2)size; or if the heart is enlarged 3)what regions (if any) of the heart are damaged 4) helps to determine the cause of chest pain |
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3 types of wave in EKG:
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P wave, QRS wave, T wave
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P wave
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-small upward deflection, recognizes atrial depolarization; corresponds to contraction of the atria.
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Why isnt there atrial repolarization in EKG?
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it normally occurs during the QRS complex and thus is not seen on the tracing (but it DOES happen) QRS masks it.
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QRS complex
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rapid ventricular depolarization; correlates to ventricles contracting
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T wave
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represents preparation for nest series of complexes (ventricle repolarization) this is slower
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Large P wave
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means atria is enlarged, the auricles disfunction, that can normally happen in athletes, but if its not in athletes, theres a problem in the atria.
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Large Q wave
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means the person had a heart attack (myocardial infarction)
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Large R wave
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ventricle enlargement
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Large/deeper S wave
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also means ventricles are enlarged
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Flat T wave
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cardiac muscle is not getting enough oxygen, could have corronary artery disease
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intervals/segments of EKGs
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time it take for the shit to occur
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P-Q interval
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starts at beginning of P wave to QRS complex, tells you the time from atrialdepolarization to ventricular depolarization
-measures SA node to AV node -the larger this is, the more likely there is cardiac damage in atria |
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S-T segment
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measures ventricle contraction
-elevated segment: MI -depressed: insufficient oxygen |
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Q-T interval
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ventricular depolarization to ventricular repolarization
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Systole
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a contraction
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Diastole
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relaxation
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average heart rate is?
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75 bpm (beats per minute)
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Correlate EKG with conduction (6 steps):
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1)cardiac AP arises from SA node.
-P wave move through atria, end at AV node -atrial depolarization = atrial systole 2)after p wave atria contracts "tunnel of contraction" it slows down 3)ventricles are full, AP moves to AV bundle, ventricles contract, and atria are diastole (repolarization) 4)movement of semi-lunar valves 5)ventricular diastole/repolarization 6)continuation of ventricular repolarization to bundle branches and purkenjie fibers. |
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What is the cardiac cycle based on?
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pressure and volume
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when the atrias are contracting, what are the ventricles?
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ventricles are relaxed
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List the 4 different heart sounds:
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S1, S2, S3, S4
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S1 heart sound:
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"Lubb" closure of AV valve
-occurs after ventricular systole |
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S2 heart sound:
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"Dubb" semi lunar valves close
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S3 heart sound:
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"rush" rapid ventricular filling
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S4 heart sound:
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"gush" atrial systole
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Heart Murmer
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an abnormal heart sound
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cardiac output depends on ... ?
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heart rate and stroke volume
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what regulates heart rate?
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the autonomic system ...
cardiovascular center in medulla oblongata |
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Input (HR)
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cerebral cortex, limbic system controls emotion, hypothalmus
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Output (HR)
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sympathetic increases HR by accelerator nerves, HR increases by releasing epinephrine, parasympathetic decreases HR, vagus nerve, ACh.
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describe what is involed in increasing heart rate:
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sympathetic releases epinephrine by cardiac accelerator nerves
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describe what is involved in decreasing heart rate:
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parasympathetic releases ACh by Vagus nerve.
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propriocepters:
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measures limb position, muscles, major stimulus for quick change in HR
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Chemoceptors
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measures chemical changes in blood, particularly oxygen
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Baroceptors:
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monitor stretching in arteries and veins
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Cardiac Output =
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HR + stroke volume
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name 5 types of blood vessels:
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arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins
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artieries
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(oxygen!) carry blood away from heart
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arterioles
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(oxygen!) carry blood away from heart and enters tissues
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capillaries
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(oxygen!) exchange of substances
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venules
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(NO oxygen!) small veins leaving tissue
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veins
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(NO oxygen!) convey blood to the heart
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Vaso Vasorum
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how large blood vessels supply themselves; vasculature within wall of blood vessels
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Angiogenesis
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growth of new blood vessels
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Name the 3 linings in artieries (called Tunics)
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Tunica Interna, Tunica Meida, and Tunica externa
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Tunica Interna
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closest to lumen, endothelium simple squamous elastic tissue, this is to accept pressure change in the heart.
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elastic lamina:
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the elastic property in the walls of arteries
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Tunica Media
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thickest layer, center.
-elastic fiber, smooth |
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Tunica Externa
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outermost layer with collagen and elastic
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What does it mean if the arteries have compliance?
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it means they can stretch with ease
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where does the ANS intervate in arteries?
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in the Tunica Media
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what does a sympathetic response cause the vessels to do?
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Vasocontriction, this increases blood pressure, which decreases blood flow
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what does a parasympathetic response cause the vessels to do?
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vasodialation, this decreases blood pressure, and increases blood flow
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3 types of arteries:
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elastic, muscular, and arterioles
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elastic arteries:
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-largest diameter at >1cm
-elastic fibers in tunica media -helps to propel the blood when ventricles relax -acts as a pressure resevoir |
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Muscular arteries
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-medium size at about .1 to .10mm in diameter
-more smooth muscle; less elastic fibers because they are father from heart to propel blood -capable of greater dialation/contriction -brachial arteries |
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Arterioles (fine details)
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very small/microscopic (10-100um)
-deliver blood to capillary bed -tunica interna near arteries is similar -as you move to capillaries, to media, you loose smooth muscle and in the interna -> thickness in endothelium -regulates blood flow into the capillary bed |
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sphincters
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endothelial cells and smooth muscle that turn on/off blood flow into the capillary beds
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size of capillaries:
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about 4 to 10 um in diameter
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what two things do capillaries connect?
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they connect arterioles to venules
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microcirculation
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movement through capillaries
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through fare channel
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starts as a metaarteriole and becomes a metavenule
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Layers of venules:
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same as artieries (interna, media, and externa) except the tnica media is thinner, and doesnt have as much smooth muscle since it doesnt have to contract/dialate to push blood through body
-WBC move out of vessels here |
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size of veins:
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about 1 mm, can be greater
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layers of veins:
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same as venules, excep the media has smooth muscle
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what is the special characteristic of veins?
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VALVES. they still have collagen and elastic fibers, but not enough.
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Valves (definition):
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thin folds of interna and media that have cusps pointing to the heart
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Skeletal Muscle Pump (basic definition):
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helps push/propel blood to the heart
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vascular sinus:
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part of the veins, they are connective tissue to convey deoxygenated blood, its in the dura mater..
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Varicose veins:
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valve tissue
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blood flow is:
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volume of blood in vessels
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2 components to remember in blood flow
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1) pressure difference
2) resistance |
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blood pressure is:
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hydrostatic pressure by blood exerted on walls of vessel
-systolic is increasing pressure in arteries -diastolic is decreasing pressure in artieries |
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systolic & artieries:
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increases pressure
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diastolic & arteries
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decreases pressure
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if you are farther from the heart, what happens to the blood pressure?
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it drops lower
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where in the body is your blood pressure zero?
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at right atrium
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where in the body is your blood pressure highest?
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left ventricle/aorta
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mean arterial pressure (map)
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average blood pressure in arteries
formula: diastolic BP + 1/3 x systolic BP - diastolic BP |
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Resistance (definition)
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opposing with a force
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3 factors that Resistance depnds on:
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1) size of lumen: smaller lumen = greater resistance
2) blood viscosity: thickness of blood - higher blood viscosity = higher resistance 3) total blood vessel length -longer vessel = greater resistance |
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systemic vascular resistance
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the more vessels you have, the more it can increase your blood pressure.
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what can change the size of lumen?
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vasoconstiction and vasodialation
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if you have a higher blood viscosity, what is the resistance?
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theres a higher resistance
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if you have a longer blood vessel, what is the resistance?
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there is a greater resistance
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what does Venous Return consist of?
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Skeletal Muscle Pump, and Respiratory Pump (these get blood back to the heart)
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describe skeletal muscle pump at rest (standing)
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-valve proximal to heart
-valve distal to heart *both valves are open and blood flows towards the heart. |
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describe skeletal muscle pump contracting leg muscle (like your calf)
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-valve distal from heart is open
-close in an ascending fashion, as the muscles move |
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Syncope
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fainting (usually because of a blood pressure drop)
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4 types of syncopes:
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-vasodepressor
-situational -drug induced -orthostatic hypotension |
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vasodepressor (definition)
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emotional stress
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orthostatic hypotension
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decrease in blood pressure from changing positions
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what are the 3 factors of hormonal regulation of BP?
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1)altering cardiac output
2)change vascular resistance 3)adjust total blood volume |
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name the 4 hormones that affect blood pressure:
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1)RAA system
2)Epinephrine/Norepinephrine 3)Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) 4)Atrial Naturetic Peptide (ANP) 4) |
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What is RAA system?
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Renin-Angiotonsin Aldersterone
-blood volume has to fall -blood volume to kidneys is decreased -juxtaglomular cells of kidneys: release Renin, then angiotensin & aldersterone is made |
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Raise BP in two ways (RAA system)
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1)vasoconstrictor
2)increase reabsorption of H2O, increase total BV |
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What do the Juxtaglomular cells release?
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Renin. Then after some steps, Angiotensin and Aldersterone is made
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ACE inhibitors:
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lowers BP by stopping vasoconstriction and stops the reabsorption of H2O.
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Epinephrine/Norepinephrine
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-sympathetic stimulation
-increase Cardiac Output by increasing heart rate and increasing force of contractions -vasoconstiction in arteries and vasodialation in arterioles: this creates better blood flow to tissues |
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why would you want vasoconstriction in the arteries but vasodialation in the arterioles?
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this creates better blood flow to tissues
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Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)
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-produced in the hypothalamus
-released by posterior pituitary -dehydration or decrease in blood volume -vasocontriction -vasopressin |
|
|
Atrial Naturetic Peptide (ANP)
|
-atrial cells: release
-lowers BP and promotes loss of H2O and NaCl |
