Ap Psychology Unit 2 Pg. 51-110

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Aristotle

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believed the mind was in the heart

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Plato

Back 2

correctly identified the mind was in the head/brain

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Phrenology

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Franz gall
Use the bumps on skull to reveal our mental abilities and our character traits
Did Correctly identify that different brain regions have different functions

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Biological Psychologists

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Studying the links between biological activities and psychological events they continue to expand our understanding

biology and behavior

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Biopsychosocial Systems

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to understand our behavior we need to study how these biological psychological and social-cultural systems work and interact

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Neurons

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a nerve cell the basic building block of the nervous system

have billions of neurons

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Sensory neurons

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Carry messages form the bodies tissues and sensory organs inward to the brain and spinal cord for processing
Neuron that carries incoming information from the sensory receptors to the brain and spinal cord

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motor neurons

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after sensory neurons bring in the messages the brain and spinal cord then send instructions out to the bodies tissues using the motor neurons

neurons carry outgoing messages

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Interneurons

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between the sensory input and motor output the information is processed in the brains internal communications system using the interneurons

Communication between sensory neurons and motor neurons

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dendrites

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extensions of a neuron
receives information and conduct it towards the cell body "Dendrites Listen"

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axon

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extension of a neuron
passes the message along to other neurons or to muscles glands "Axon Speaks"

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Myelin Sheath

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insulates the axon of some neurons and helps speed their impulses

laid down down until about 25 years of age

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Degenerate Myelin Sheath

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leads to multiple sclerosis because the communication to muscles slows and leads to loss of muscle control

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Action potential

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when a neuron fires an impulse its called the action potential, which is a brief electrical charge that travels down its axon

The interior of an axon has negatively charged ions while the outside fluid is positively charged the equal charge when at resting position is Resting Potential when the neuron fires the parameters change and the axon opens its gates and the positively charged ion come in DEPOLARIZING it and it causes the next axon channel to open (domino affect)

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Resting Potential

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The interior of an axon has negatively charged ions while the outside fluid is positively charged the equal charge when at resting position is

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Selectively Permeable

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the axon surface is very selective about what it allows in
it blocks things from coming in/out

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Refractory Period

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resting period the neurons pump the positively charged sodium ions back outside so the neuron can fire again

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excitatory

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neurons signals that are more likely to fire

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Inhibitory

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neurons signals that are least likely to fire

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threshold

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the level of stimulation required to trigger a neuron impulse
if excitatory signals out number the inhibitory ones then it triggers the action potential

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all-or nothing response

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neurons have the same action potential (speed and strength) more stimulus will not increase it but it will increase the AMOUNT of neurons firing

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Synapse

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meeting point between neurons
the junction between the axon tip of the sending neuron and the dendrite or cell body of the receiving neuron

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Synaptic gap/ cleft

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gaps between the neurons

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neurotransmitters

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Chemicals that assist in the transfer of signals from one neuron to another

When an action potential reaches the knoblike terminals at the end of an axon it triggers the release of chemical messengers they cross the synaptic gap and bind to receptors sites n the receiving neuron and the neurotransmitters unlock the tiny channels at the receiving site and electrically charged atoms come in exciting or inhibiting the receiving neurons

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Reuptake

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the sending neuron reabsorbs the excess neurotransmitters
a neurotransmitter reabsorption by the sending neuron

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Acetylcholine

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neurotransmitter
Enables muscle action, learning , and memory

is the messenger at every junction between a motor neuron and skeletal muscle

if it is blocked the muscles cannot contract and we are paralyzed

Alzheimer's disease

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Dopamine

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Neurotransmitter

influences movement,learning, attention, and emotion

Linked to schizophrenia and Parkinson's disease (tremors and decreased mobility)

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Serotonin

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Neurotransmitter
affects mood,hunger,sleep, and arousal
linked to depression

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Norepinephrine

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Neurotransmitter
Helps control alertness and arousal
Undersupply can depress mood

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GABA ( gamma aminobutyric acid)

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Neurotransmitter
Important inhibitory neurotransmitter
Linked to seizures tremors and insomnia

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glutamate

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neurotransmitter
Major excitatory neurotransmitter involved in memory
oversupply can overstimulate brain producing migraines or seizers

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endorphins

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"morphine within" natural opiate like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasure

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agonist

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is a drug that may be similar enough to a neurotransmitter that it binds to the receptor and mimics its affects

it can amplifies normal sensations of arousal or pleasure

when it is removed it can cause extreme discomfort

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Antagonists

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Is a drug that blocks a neurotransmitters functions

ex: botox

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Nervous system

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the bodies speedy electrochemical communication network consisting of all the nerve cells of the peripheral and central nervous system

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Nerves

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bundle of axon that form neural cables connecting the central nervous system with muscles glands and sense organs

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Central Nervous System (CNS)

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the brain and spinal cord

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Peripheral Nervous System

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the sensory and motor neurons that connect the central nervous system to the rest of the body

Somatic and Autonomic

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Somatic nervous system

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enables voluntary control of our skeletal muscles

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Autonomic nervous system

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controls our glands and muscles of our internal organs influencing functions such as glandular activity heartbeat and digestion

usually operates by itself but can be overridden

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Sympathetic nervous system

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part of the autonomic nervous system
arouses and expends energy
if something alarms enrages or challenges you it mobilizes energy ( accelerates heartbeat raises blood pressure and slows digestion making you alert)

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Parasympathetic nervous system

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when stress subsides the parasympathetic produces the opposite effect
it conserves energy and calms you by decreasing your heartbeat and lowering blood sugar

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neural Networks

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the brains neuron clusters that work in these groups called neural networks
neuron network work with neurons nearby in which they can have short fast connections

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Spinal cord

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is an information highway connecting the peripheral nervous system to the brain
Ascending fibers send up sensory information and the descending fibers send back motor control information

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reflexes

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our automatic responses to stimuli (use the spinal cord)

Happens before the brain receives the signal because the pain reflex runs through the spinal cord and right back out

To produce bodily pain or pleasure your brain mush receive the information

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Endocrine System

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Interconnected with the nervous system
the bodies slow chemical communication system
a set of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream
Their messages outlast the effects of nervous system messages

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Hormones

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Chemical messengers created by the endocrine system that travel through the bloodstream and affect other tissues
influence our interest in sex food and aggression

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Adrenal Glands

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On top of the kidneys
they release epinephrine and norepinephrine ( flight or flight responses)
these hormones increase heart rate blood pressure Etc.
These effects linger a while because they come from endocrine system

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Pituitary gland

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most influential endocrine gland
under the influence of the hypothalamus it regulates growth and controls other endocrine glands that produces the release of hormones

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Lesion

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Tissue destruction a brain lesion is a naturally or experimentally caused destruction of brain tissue

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electroencephalogram (EEG)

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us an amplified readout of waves of electrical activity that goes on the brains surface
these waves are measured by electrodes placed on the brain

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Computed Tomography (CT scan)

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examines the brain by taking x-ray photographs that can reveal brain damage
combined the different angles of x-ray photographs is combined into a composite representation of a sliced through the body

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PET ( positron emission tomography scan)

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depicts brain activity by showing each brain area consumption of its chemical fuel , sugar glucose

detects glucose while brain performs tasks

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MRI (magnetic resonance imaging)

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head is put in strong magnetic field with aligns the spinning atoms of brian molecules. then a radio wave pulse momentarily disorients the atoms when the atoms return to their normal spin they release signals that provide a detailed picture of the brains soft tissues (can scan other body parts)

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fMRI (functional MRI)

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can reveal the brains functioning as well as its structure
they compare MRI scans taken less than a second apart they can see which parts "light up" (with increased oxygen) as a person preforms different mental functions

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Brainstem

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the oldest part and central core of the brain beginning where the spinal cord swells as it enters the skull the brain stem is responsible for automatic survival functions (breathing )

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medulla

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the base of the brainstem controls heartbeat and breathing

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Pons

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above the medulla which helps coordinate movements
relay signals from forebrain to cerebellum (sleeping swallowing etc)

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reticular formation

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A nerve network in the brainstem that plays an important role in controlling arousal
extends from the spinal cord right up into the thalamus
filters incoming stimuli and relays important information to other areas of the brain

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Thalamus

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Relays signals from sense organs except smell

located on top of the brainstem it directs messages to the sensory recieving areas in the cortex and transmits replies to the cerebellum and medulla

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cerebellum

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the "little brain" at the rear of the brain stem functions include processing sensory input and coordinating movement output and balance
module our emotions and discriminate sounds and texture and coordinates voluntary movement

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Limbic System

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(includes the hippocampus. amygdala, and hypothalamus)
plays an important rule in regulating emotion and memory and drives

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Amygdala

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influence aggression and fear

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Hypothalamus

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important in the chain of command governing bodily maintenance
influence hunger thirst body temperature and sexual behavior
reward center

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reward deficiency syndrome

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a genetically disposed deficiency in the natural brain system for pleasure and well being that leads people to crave whatever provides that missing pleasure or relieves negative feelings

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Cerebral Cortex

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the intricate fabric of interconnected neural cells covering the cerebral hemispheres the bodies ultimate control and information processing center

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glial cells

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cells in the nervous system that support nourish and protect neurons insulate myelin guide neural connections and mop up ions and neurotransmitters

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Frontal Lobes

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portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead involved in speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgements

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parietal Lobe

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portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and toward the rear recieves sensory input for touch and body position

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Occipital Lobes

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Portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head includes areas that receive information from the visual fields

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temporal Lobes

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portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears includes the auditory areas each recieving information primarily form the opposite ear

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Motor Cortex

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an area at the rear of the frontal lobes that controls voluntary movements

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Sensory Cortex

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Area at the front of the parietal lobes that registers and processes body touch and movement sensations

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Auditory Cortex

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where what you hear is processed

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association areas

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the link between sensory inputs with stored memories
areas of the cerebral cortex that are not involved in primary motor or sensory functions but are involved in higher metal functions such as learning remembering thinking and speaking

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Aphasia

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impaired use of language usually caused by left hemisphere damage to the broca's area(speaking) or the wernicke's area (understanding)

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Brocas Area

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on left frontal lobe controls language expression that directs the muscle movements involved in speech

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Wernicke's Area

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Controls language reception- a brain area involved in language comprehension and expression- left temporal lobe

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angular gyrus

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involved in reading aloud
able to speak and understand but not read outloud

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Brains Plasticity

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ability to modify itself after some types of damage
severed neurons do not regenerate but it can reorganize

Most Plastic when young

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Constrain induced therapy

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aims to rewire brains by restraining a fully functioning limb and forcing use of the "bad hand' or uncooperative leg

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Neurogenesis

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the formation of new neurons
exercise sleep and non stressful but stimulating environments

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Corpus Callosum

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the wide band of axon fibers connecting the two hemispheres and carries the messages between the two

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Split Brain

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corpus callosum is cut
personality and intellect hardly affected
isolates the brains two hemispheres

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right hemisphere

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perceptual task seeing objects etc.

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Left Hemisphere

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when person speaks or calculates

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Consciousness

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our awareness of ourselves and our environment

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Cognitive Neuroscience

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interdisciplinary study of the brian activity linked with our mental processes

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Dual Processing

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the principle that information is often simultaneously processed on separate conscious and unconscious tracks

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Two Track Mind

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visual perception track - to recognize thinga snd to plan future action s

Visual action track- guides our moment to moment actions

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Behavior geneticists

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who study our differences and wigh the effects and interpalay of herdity and our environment

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chromosomes

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structures made up of DNA molecules that contain genes

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DNA

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a complex molecule containing the genetic information that makes up the chromosomes

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genes

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The biological units of heredity that make up the chromosomes; segments of DNA capable of synthesizing a protein
Active (expressed) or Inactive

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Genome

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common sequence within human DNA
the complete instructions for making an organism consisting of all the genetic material in that organism chromosomes

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Identical Twins

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who develop from a single fertilized egg that splits in two
have the same genes but not always the same number of copies

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Fraternal twins

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develop form separate fertilized eggs
genetically they are no more similar than brothers or sisters

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Genetic relatives

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biological parents and siblings

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Environmental relatives `

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adoptive parents and siblings

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Heritability

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the extent to which variation among individuals can be attributed to their differing genes
the extent to which differences among people are attributed to genes

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molecular genetics

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the subfield of biology that studies the molecular structure and function of genes
identify specific genes influencing our behavior

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evolutionary psychologist

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focus on what makes us so much alike as humans
use natural selection to understand the roots of behavior and mental processes

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mutations

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random errors in gene replication

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Critics of evolutionary psychologists aims

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1. they start with an effect and work backwards to propose and explanation
2. unethical men could use such explanations to rationalize their behavior towards women
3. this overlooks the effects of cultural expectations and socializations