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AP Psychology Review

Ap Psychology Review

by EricaFeasel, Apr. 2015

Subjects: psychology, psych, ap, review

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Psychology	Scientific study of behavior and mental processes
Empirical Approach	Study conducted via careful observations and scientifically based research	Standard approach for all scientific research
Pseudopsychology	False assertions or practices presented as legitimate psychology
Confirmation Bias	Tendency to find evidence that confirms our already existing thoughts and beliefs while ignoring evidence that doesn't
Clever Hans	The horse that people thought could do math but after testing was found to not be able to.
Psychiatry	Medical specialty dealing with the diagnosis/treatment of mental disorders
Experimental Psychologists	Do research on psychology vs. Applied Psychologists who use research in their practices	AKA Research Psychologists
Facilitated Communication	Treatment for autism popular in the 90s that was proven false after testing. "Helpers" helped autistic children answer questions by moving their hands to point at letters, numbers, etc.
What are the main perspectives/concepts that formed modern psychology?	Structuralism, Functionalism, Gestalt Psychology, Behaviorism, and Psychoanalysis	The Big 5
Structuralism	Devoted to uncovering the basic "elements" or "structures" of the mind and thought processes: sensation/perception, memory, attention, emotion, cognition, learning, and language	Developed by Wilhelm Wundt
Charles Darwin	Developed the theory of evolution and suggested a biological link between animals and humans
Wilhelm Wundt	Developed the concept of Structuralism and opened the first institute for psychological research.
Introspection	Reporting on one's own conscious mental experiences
Functionalism	Believed mental processes are best understood in terms of their adaptive purpose and function	Developed by William James who thought Wundt's perspective was far too narrow.
Gestalt Psychology	Seeks to understand the brain by studying perception and perceptual learning.	Focused on "perceptual wholes" or "Gestalts" (in German)
Behaviorism	Seeks to make psychology an objective science focused only on behavior (and excluding the mental processes. Developed by John B. Watson.	Think Sherlock Holmes for the key figure here.
Psychoanalysis	Emphasizes unconscious processes (id, ego, and superego). Refers broadly to the psychoanalytic theory and associated treatment method.	We all know this is Freud.
The main perspectives used by psychologists today	Biological, developmental, cognitive, psychodynamic, humanistic, behavioral, sociocultural, evolutionary/sociobiological, and trait.	There are 9.
Biological View	Searches for causes of behavior in genes, the brain, and the nervous and endocrine systems.
Neuroscience	Field devoted to studying the brain and its relation to psychology	It's sciency.
Evolutionary Psychology	Behavior and mental processes result from genetic adaptations for survival and reproduction.
Developmental View	Emphasizes changes that occur across a lifespan.
Cognitive View	Emphasizes mental processes (learning, memory, perception, and thinking).
Clinical View	Emphasizes mental health and illness (typically in relation to medicine).
Psychodynamic Psychology	Emphasizes the understanding of mental disorders in terms of unconscious needs, desires, memories, and conflicts.	Freud.
Humanistic View	Emphasizes human ability, growth, potential, and free will. Led by Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers.	Self-concept and self-actualization are big to humanists.
Behavioral View	Finds the source of our actions in environmental stimuli rather than mental processes. B.F. Skinner is important (he did the thing with the box and stuff).
Sociocultural View	Emphasizes the importance of social interaction, social learning, and culture on behavior.
Evolutionary View	Applies species-specific patterns to humans to develop greater understanding.	Darwin
Trait View	Views behavior and personality as enduring psychological characteristics.
Theory	Testable explanation for a set of facts or observations. Not just a speculation or guess.
Hypothesis	Statement predicting the outcome of a scientific study or describing the relationship of variables in a study.
Operational Definitions	Specific descriptions of concepts/conditions/things in a study.
Independent Variable	Stimulus condition because the experimenter can change it independently of all other conditions.
Dependent Variable	Measured outcome of a study/responses of subjects in a study.
Confounding Variables	Variables that have unwanted influence on a study.	AKA Extraneous Variables
Controls	Constraints the experimenter places on the experiment to ensure that each subject has the same conditions.
Random Assignment	Each subject has equal likelihood of being part of the experimental group.
Ex Post Facto	Research that chooses subjects based on a previous condition.	After the fact (after something).
Correlational Study	Determines the relationship between two variables.
Naturalistic Observation	Subjects are observed in their natural environments.
Longitudinal Study	One group of subjects is followed/observed over an extended period of time.	"Long"itudinal
Cross-Sectional Study	A representative cross-section of the population is tested at one specific time.
Cohort-Sequentional Study	A cross section of the population is chosen and each person is followed for a short amount of time.
Personal Bias	Personal beliefs affect outcome.
Expectancy Bias	Expectations affect outcome.
Double-Blind Study	Both researchers and participants are unaware of the nature of the independent variable being administered.
Frequency Distribution	Summary chart showing the frequencies of scores in a set of data.
Histogram	Bar graph depicting a frequency distribution.
Standard Deviation	Measure of variability that indicates the average difference between the scores and the mean.
Normal Distribution	Bell-shaped curve describing the spread of a characteristic through a population.	68% of scores fall within one standard deviation on either side of the mean.
Correlation Coefficient	Number between -1 and +1 expressing the degree of relationship between two variables. 0 signifies no relationship.
Significant Difference	Probability that difference is due to error is less than 5%.	p < .05
Biopsychology	Studies the interaction of biology, behavior, and mental processes.
Genotype	Organism's genetic makeup.	Not always observable characteristics. Genotype = Genetic
Phenotype	Observable physical characteristics. Phenotype = Physical.
Deoxyribonucleic Acid	DNA. Chromosomes are made of DNA strands which are made up of genes.
Neuron	Cell specialized to receive and transmit info to other cells in the body.	AKA Nerve Cells (bundles are called nerves).
Sensory Neuron	Nerve cell that carries messages from sense receptors to the Central Nervous System.	AKA Afferent Neuron
Motor Neuron	Nerve cell that carries messages from the Central Nervous System to the muscles and glands.	AKA Efferent Neuron
Interneuron	Nerve cell that relays messages between cells.	Esp. in the brain and spinal cord.
Dendrite	Branched fiber that extends from the main cell body and carries information into the neuron.	Receiving end of the neuron.
Soma	Part of the cell containing the nucleus.	AKA Cell Body
Axon	Fiber that conducts info from the soma to the terminal buttons.
Resting Potential	Electrical charge of the axon when it is inactive and "ready to fire".
Action Potential	Nerve impulse caused by a change on the electrical charge of the axon. When the neuron "fires".
Terminal Buttons	Bulblike structures at the end of the axon which contain neurotransmitters that carry the neuron's message into the synapse.
Neurotransmitters	Chemical messengers that relay neural messages across the synapse.	Many are also hormones.
Plasticity	Nervous system's ability to adapt or change as the result of an experience.	May help the nervous system adapt to physical damage.
Glial Cells	Bind neurons together.
Nervous System	Network of neurons in the body.	Includes Central Nervous System, Peripheral Nervous System, and subdivisions.
Central Nervous System	Brain and spinal cord.
Peripheral Nervous System	All parts of the nervous system outside the Central Nervous System.	Includes the autonomic and somatic nervous systems.
Somatic Nervous System	Carries information to the Central Nervous System and send voluntary messages to the body's skeletal muscles.
Autonomic Nervous System	Sends communications between the Central Nervous System and the internal organs and glands.
Sympathetic Division	Sends messages to internal organs/glands during stressful and emergency situations.
Parasympathetic Division	Monitors routine operations of the internal organs and returns the body to calmer functioning after arousal of the Sympathetic Division.
Endocrine System	Body's hormone system. Includes endocrine glands: pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries, and testes.
Anterior Pituitary	Regulates ovaries/testes, breast milk production, metabolism, and reactions to stress.
Posterior Pituitary	Controls conservation of body's water, breast milk secretion, and uterus contractions.
Thyroid	Controls metabolism and physical growth/development.
Parathyroid	Controls calcium levels.
Pancreas	Controls glucose metabolism.
Adrenal Glands	Controls fight-or-flight response, metabolism, and sexual desire (esp. in women).
Ovaries	Controls development of female sexual characteristics and production of ova (eggs).
Testes	Controls development of male sexual characteristics, sperm production, and sexual desire (in men).
Pituitary Gland	Produces hormones that influence the secretion of all other endocrine glands as well as growth hormone. Attached to and takes orders from the hypothalamus.	"Master gland"
Agonist	Drug/chemical that enhances/mimics the effects of neurotransmitters.
Antagonist	Drug/chemical that inhibits the effects of neurotransmitters.
Electroencephalograph (EEG)	Records brain waves through electrodes placed on the scalp.
Computerized Tomography (CT Scan)	Computerized imaging that uses x-rays to create an image of the brain.
Positron Emission Tomography (PET Scan)	Relies on detection of radioactive sugar consumed by active brain cells.
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)	Relies on cells' responses in a high-intensity magnetic field.
Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)	Reveals which parts of the brain are most active during various mental activities.
Brain Stem	Primitive layer of the brain. Includes medulla, pons, and reticular formation.
Medulla	Part of the brain stem. Controls breathing and heart rate. Sensory and motor pathways connecting the brain to the body cross here.
Pons	Regulates brain activity during sleep and dreaming.
Reticular Formation	Pencil-shaped structure forming the core of the brain stem. Arouses the cortex to keep the brain alert and attentive to new stimulation.
Thalamus	Brain's central "relay station" just atop the brain stem. Nearly all messages going into or out of the brain go through here.
Cerebellum	Responsible for coordinated movements.	"Little Brain"
Limbic System	Middle layer of the brain. Includes the hippocampus, amygdala, hypothalamus, etc.
Hippocampus	Part of the limbic system. Involved in establishing long-term memories.
Amygdala	Involved in memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression.
Hypothalamus	Monitors blood to determine the condition of the body.
Cerebral cortex	Thin gray-matter covering the cerebral hemispheres. Carries on higher mental processing, including thinking and perceiving.
Frontal Lobes	Cortical region at the front of the brain. Involved in movement and thinking.
Motor Cortex	Narrow vertical strip of cortex in the frontal lobes. Controls voluntary movement.
Parietal Lobes	Cortical areas at the back and top of the brain. Involved in touch sensation and in perceiving spatial relationships.
Somatosensory Cortex	Strip of the parietal lobe just behind the central fissure. Involved with sensations of touch.
Occipital Lobes	Cortical regions at the back of the brain housing the visual cortex.
Visual Cortex	Visual processing areas in the occipital and temporal lobes.
Temporal Lobes	Cortical lobes that process sounds and storing long-term memory.
Association Cortex	Cortical regions throughout the brain that combine information from various other parts of the brain.
Cerebral Dominance	Tendency of each brain hemisphere to exert control over different functions, such as language or spatial relationships.
Left Hemisphere	Regulation of positive emotions, control of muscles used in speech, control of sequence of movements, spontaneous speaking and writing, memory for words and numbers, understanding speech and writing.
Right Hemisphere	Regulation of negative emotions, responses to simple commands, memory for shapes and music, interpreting spatial relationships and visual images, and recognition of faces.
Corpus Callosum	Band of neurons that connect the two hemispheres.
Perception	Process that makes sensory patterns meaningful.
Transduction	Transformation of one form of energy into another, esp. of stimulus information into nerve signals.
Sensory Adaptation	Loss of responsiveness in receptor cells after prolonged exposure.
Light Absolute Threshold	A candle flame at 30 miles on a dark, cleaf night.
Sound Absolute Threshold	The tick of a mechanical watch under quiet conditions at 20 feet.
Taste Absolute Threshold	One teaspoon of sugar in two gallons of water.
Smell Absolute Threshold	One drop of perfume diffused in the entire volume of a three-bedroom apartment.
Touch Absolute Threshold	The wing of a bee falling on your cheek at a distance of one centimeter.
Weber's Law	Size of the Just Noticeable Difference (Difference Threshold) is proportional to the intensity of the stimulus.
Signal Detection Theory	Sensation is a judgment the sensory system makes about incoming stimulation.
Retina	Thin, light-sensitive layer at the back of the eyeball. Contains millions of photoreceptors and nerve cells.
Photoreceptors	Light-sensitive cells that convert light energy to neural impulses.
Rods	Photoreceptors that are sensitive to dim light but not to color.
Cones	Photoreceptors that are sensitive to color but not dim light.	Cones = Color
Fovea	Tiny area of sharpest vision in the retina.
Brightness	Intensity of light waves.
Color	Wavelengths of visible light waves.
Visible Spectrum	Tiny part of the electromagnetic spectrum to which our eyes are sensitive.
Trichromatic Theory	Idea that colors are sensed by red, blue, and green cones sensitive to those specific wavelengths.
Opponent-Process Theory	Cells in the visual system process colors in complementary pairs (red and green, blue and yellow).
Frequency	Number of wavelengths.	Measures pitch.
Amplitude	Height of the wavelengths.	Measures loudness.
Tympanic Membrane	Eardrum
Cochlea	Primary organ of hearing. A coiled tube in the inner ear where sound waves are transduced into nerve messages.
Basilar Membrane	Thin strip of tissue in the cochlea sensitive to vibrations. When the hair cells detect vibrations they excite the corresponding neurons which convert the vibrations into nerve activity.
Conduction Deafness	Inability to hear resulting from damage to structures of the middle or inner ear.
Nerve Deafness	Inability to hear linked to a deficit in the body's ability to transmit impulses from the cochlea to the brain, usually involving the auditory nerve or processing centers.	Sensorineural Deafness
Vestibular Sense	Sense of body orientation with respect to gravity.	Closely associated to the inner ear and messages are carried to the brain via a branch of the auditory nerve.
Kinesthetic Sense	Sense of body position and movement of body parts relative to each other.
Olfaction	Sense of smell.
Pheromones	Chemical signals released by organisms to communicate with other members of the species. Often used by animals as sexual attractants.
Gustation	Sense of taste.
Gate-Control Theory	Explanation for pain control that proposes we have a neural "gate" that can block incoming pain signals in some situations.
Placebo Effect	Response to a fake drug caused by the belief that one is taking a real drug.
Binding Problem	Process used by the brain to combine the results of many sensory operations into a single percept.
Bottom-Up Processing	Processing by identifying the individual characteristics of a percept.
Top-Down Processing	Perceptual analysis that emphasizes the perceiver's expectations, memories, and other cognitive factors.
Perceptual Constancy	Ability to recognize the same object as remaining "constant" under different conditions.
Closure	Gestalt principle that identifies the tendency to fill in gaps in figures and to see incomplete figures as complete.
Law of Pragnanz	The simplest organization, involving the least cognitive effort, will emerge as the figure.
Learning-Based Inference	View that perception is primarily shaped by learning, rather than by innate factors.
Circadian Rhythms	Physiological patterns that repeat approximately every 24 hours, such as the sleep-wakefulness cycle.
REM Sleep	Stage of sleep that occurs approximately every 90 minutes, marked by bursts of rapid eye movements while the eyes are closed.	Associated with dreaming.
Stage 1 of Sleep	Slow activity, with some fast waves similar to those seen when awake.
Stage 2 of Sleep	Slower activity punctuated by spindles (short bursts of fast electrical activity).
Stage 3 of Sleep	Sleeper enters a progressively deeper state of relaxed sleep. Heart, brain waves, and breathing slow down.
Stage 4 of Sleep	Brain waves continue to slow dramatically. Has the deepest point of sleep (about half an hour after onset).
Sleep Paralysis	Sleeper is incapable of moving any voluntary muscles except the eyes. Normally occurs during REM sleep.
Manifest Content	Story line of a dream, taken at face value without interpretation.
Latent Content	Symbolic meaning of a dream. Usually interpreted based on Freud's psychoanalytic theory.
Activation-Synthesis Theory	Dreams begin with random electrical activation from the brain stem. Dreams are then the brain's attempt to make sense of (synthesize) the random activity.
Cataplexy	Sudden loss of muscle control.
Hypnosis	Induced state if awareness, usually characterized by heightened suggestibility, deep relaxation, and highly focused attention.
Psychoactive Drugs	Chemicals that affect mental processes and behavior.
Hallucinogens	Drugs that cause hallucinations or alter perceptions of environment/awareness.	Mescaline, Psilocybin, LSD, PCP, and Cannabis
Opiates	Highly addictive drugs that produce a sense of well-being and have strong pain-relieving properties.	Morphine, Heroine, Codeine, and Methadone.
Depressants	Drugs that slow down mental and physical activity by inhibiting transmission of nerve impulses in the central nervous system.	Barbiturates, Benzodiazepines, Alcohol, and Rohypnol.
Stimulants	Drugs that arouse the central nervous system, speeding up mental and physical responses.	Amphetamines, Methamphetamine, MDMA (ecstasy), Cocaine, Nicotine, and Caffeine.
Tolerance	Reduced effectiveness of a drug after repeated use.
Learning	Lasting change in behavior or mental processes that results from experience.
Habituation	Learning not to respond after repeated presentation of a stimulus.
Classical Conditioning	Form of behavioral learning in which a previously neutral stimulus acquires the power to elicit the same innate response produced by another stimulus.	Pavlov's dogs - drool when they hear a bell rather than when they see food.
Unconditioned Stimulus	Stimulus that elicits an unconditioned response.
Unconditioned Response	Response elicited by an unconditioned stimulus without prior learning.
Acquisition	Initial learning stage in classical conditioning, during which the conditioned response comes to be elicited by the conditioned stimulus.
Conditioned Stimulus	Previously neutral stimulus that comes to elicit the conditioned response.
Conditioned Response	Response elicited by a previously neutral stimulus.
Extinction (Classical Conditioning)	Weakening of a conditioned response in the absence of an unconditioned stimulus.
Spontaneous Recovery	Reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response after a time delay.
Stimulus Generalization	Extension of a learned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.
Stimulus Generalization	Extension of a learned response to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus.
Stimulus Discrimination	Change in response from many similar stimuli to one stimulus.
Operant Conditioning	Form of behavioral learning in which the probability of a response is changed by its consequences.
Law of Effect	Idea that responses that produce desirable effects will become learned.
Reinforcer	Any consequence that strengthens a response.
Positive Reinforcement	Stimulus presented after a response to strengthen it.
Negative Reinforcement	Removal of an unpleasant/aversive stimulus after a specific behavior to strengthen that response.
Shaping	Operant learning technique in which a new behavior is produced by reinforcing responses that are similar to the desired response.
Extinction (Operant Conditioning)	Process by which a learned response is weakened by the absence/removal of reinforcement.
Primary Reinforcers	Reinforcers that have an innate basis because of their biological value.	Sex and food.
Conditioned Reinforcers	Stimuli that acquire reinforcing power by a learned association with primary reinforcers.	AKA Secondary Reinforcers. Money or tokens.
Premack Principle	Concept that a more desirable activity can be used to reinforce a less desirable activity.	Developed by David Premack
Positive Punishment	Application of an aversive stimulus after a response to weaken that behavior.
Negative Punishment	Removal of a desirable stimulus after a response to weaken that behavior.	AKA Omission Training
Insight Learning	Form of learning in which problem solving occurs by reorganization of mental perceptions.	Developed by Gestalt psychologists.
Observational Learning	Form of cognitive learning in which new responses are acquired after watching others' behavior and the consequences of their behavior.
Long-Term Potentiation	Biological process, involving physical changes that strengthen the synapses in groups of neurons, which is believed to be the neural basis of learning.
Information-Processing Model	Cognitive understanding of memory, emphasizing how information is changed when it is encoded, stored, and retrieved.
Encoding	Modification of information to fit the preferred format of the memory system.
Storage	The retention of encoded material over time.
Retrieval	The location and recovery of information from memory.
Eidetic Imagery	Especially clear and consistent form of memory that is quite rare.	AKA Photographic Memory
Sensory Memory	First of three memory stages. Preserving brief sensory impressions of stimuli.
Working Memory	Second of three memory stages, preserves recently perceived events or experiences for less than a minute without rehearsal.
Levels of Processing Theory	Explanation for the fact that information is more thoroughly connected to meaningful items in long-term memory will be remembered better.
Procedural Memory	Memory of how things are done.
Declarative Memory	Memory of explicit information (facts).
Episodic Memory	Memory of personal events or "episodes".
Semantic Memory	General knowledge like meanings of words and concepts.
Implicit Memory	Memory that was not deliberately learned or of which you have no conscious awareness.
Explicit Memory	Memory that has been processed with attention and can be consciously recalled.
Proactive Interference	Previously learned information prevents learning and remembering new information.
Retroactive Interference	Newly learned information prevents the retrieval of previously stored information.
Language Acquisition Device (LAD)	Biologically organized mental structure in the brain that facilitates the learning of language because it is innately programmed with some of the fundamental rules of grammar.	Proposed by Noam Chomsky.
Schema	Knowledge cluster or general conceptual framework that provides expectations about topics, events, objects, people, and situations.
Id	Primitive, unconscious portion of the personality that houses the most basic drives and stores repressed memories.
Superego	Mind's storehouse of values, including moral attitudes learned from parents and society.
Ego	Conscious, rational part of the personality that keeps the balance between the Id and Superego.
Oral Stage of Development	Desire for oral stimulation. Challenge of overcoming dependency.	1st year of life.
Anal Stage of Development	Desire for anal stimulation by bladder/bowel function. Challenge of self-control.	1-3 years.
Phallic Stage of Development	Desire for genital stimulation. Challenge of resolving the Oedipus Complex.	3-6 years.
Latency Stage of Development	Desire for repression of sexual and aggressive desires. Challenge of learning modesty and shame.	6 years to puberty.
Genital Stage of Development	Desire for mature sexual relationships. Challenge of displacing energy into healthy activities and establishing mature relationships with parents.
Oedipus Complex	According to Freud, unconscious process whereby boys displace an erotic attraction to their mother to females of their own age and identify with their father.	Girls: Electra Complex
Fixation	Arrested psychological development because of failure to resolve the desires or challenges of a particular stage of development.
Script	Cluster of knowledge about sequences of events and actions expected to occur in particular settings.
Mental Set	Tendency to respond to a new problem in the manner used for a previous problem.
Functional Fixedness	Inability to perceive a new use for an object associated with a different purpose.
Representative Bias	Presumption that once people or events are categorized, they share all the features of other members in that category.
Anchoring Bias	Faulty heuristic caused by basing (anchoring) an estimate based on a completely unrelated quality.
Aptitudes	Innate potentialities (as contrasted with abilities acquired by learning).
Emotion	Four-part process that involves physiological arousal, subjective feelings, cognitive interpretation, and behavioral expression, all of which interact, rather than occurring in a linear sequence.
Display Rules	Permissible ways of expressing emotion.
Paul Ekman	Psychologist that studied human emotion and found seven basic universal emotions: sadness, fear, anger, disgust, contempt, happiness, and surprise.
Robert Plutchik	Studied emotions. Developed the Emotion Wheel.
Lateralization of Emotion	Different influences of the two brain hemispheres on various emotions. Left hemisphere influences positive emotions, and the right hemisphere influences negative emotions.
James-Lange Theory	Proposal that an emotion-provoking stimulus produces a physical response that, in turn, produces an emotion.
Cannon-Bard Theory	Proposal that an emotional feeling and an internal physiological response occur at the same time: one is not the cause of the other. Both were believed to be the result of cognitive appraisal of the situation.
Two-Factor Theory	Proposal claiming that emotion results from the cognitive appraisal of both physiological and an emotion-provoking stimulus.
Cognitive Appraisal Theory	Theory of emotion which theorizes that individuals decide on an appropriate emotion following the event.
Opponent Process Theory	Theory of emotion which theorizes that emotions emotions have pairs. When one is triggered, the other is suppressed.
Sensation Seekers	In Marvin Zuckerman's theory, individuals who have a biological need for higher levels of stimulation than do other people.
Emotional Intelligence	Ability to understand and control emotional responses.
Motivation	All the processes involved in starting, directing, and maintaining physical and psychological activities.
Drive	Biologically instigated motivation.
Motive	Internal mechanism that selects and directs behavior.
Intrinsic Motivation	Desire to engage in an activity for its own sake, rather than for some external consequence.
Extrinsic Motivation	Desire to engage in an activity to achieve an external consequence.
Conscious Mtoviation	Having a desire to engage in an activity and being aware of the desire.
Unconscious Motivation	Having a desire to engage in an activity but being consciously unaware of the desire.
Instinct Theory	Outmoded view that certain behaviors are completely determined by innate factors. Flawed because it overlooked the effects of learning and because it employed instincts merely as labels, rather than as explanations for behaviors.
Fixed-Action Patterns	Genetically based behaviors, seen across a species, that can be set off by a specific stimulus. Replaced the old concept of the Instinct Theory.
Drive Theory	Theory that a hypothetical state of energy or tension (drive) moves an organism to meet a biological need.	i.e. Drinking water to meet the drive of thirst.
Homeostasis	Body's tendency to maintain a biologically balanced condition, especially with regard to nutrients, water, and temperature.
Hierarchy of Needs	Developed by Maslow: Biological, Safety, Attachment/Affiliation, Esteem, and Self-Actualization.
Overjustification	Process by which extrinsic rewards can sometimes displace internal motivation.
Need for Achievement	Mental state that produces a psychological motive to excel or to reach some goal.	Henry Murray and David McClelland.
Set Point	Tendency of the body to maintain a certain level of body fat and body weight.
Sexual Response Cycle	Four-stage sequence of arousal, plateau, orgasm, and resolution occurring in both men and women.
Sexual Scripts	Socially learned ways of responding in sexual situations.
Approach-Approach Conflict	Conflict in which one must choose between two equally attractive options.
Aporoach-Avoidance Conflict	Conflict in which there are both appealing and negative aspects to the decision.
Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict	Conflict in which one has to choose between two equally unattractive options.
Multiple Approach-Avoidance Conflict	Conflict in which one must choose between options that have both many attractive and many negative aspects.
General Adaptation Syndrome	Pattern of general physical responses that take essentially the same form in responding to any serious chronic stressor.
Alarm Reaction	First stage of General Adaptation Syndrome. The body mobilizes its resources to cope with a stressor.
Stage of Resistance	Second stage of General Adaptation Syndrome. The body adapts to and uses resources to cope with a stressor.
Stage of Exhaustion	Third stage of General Adaptation Syndrome. The body depletes its resources in responding to an ongoing stressor.
Type A	Behavior pattern characterized by intense, angry, competitive, or perfectionistic responses to challenging situations.
Type B	Behavior pattern characterized by a relaxed, unstressed approach to life.
Learned Helplessness	Pattern of failure to respond to noxious stimuli after an organism learns its responses are ineffective.
Nature-Nurture Issue	Discussion over the influence of heredity and environment on behavior and mental processes.
Prenatal Period	Developmental period before birth: zygote, embryo, and fetus.
Neonatal Period	"Newborn" period. Extends through the first month after birth.
Infancy	Time between the neonatal period and the establishment of language (ends between 18 months and 2 years).
The Strange Situation	Conducted by Mary Aibsworth. Secure vs. Insecure Attachment between mothers and their children.
Contact Comfort	Stimulation and reassurance derived from the physical touch of a caregiver.
Piaget's Theory	Discontinuous model of development: Sensorimotor, Preoperational, and Concrete Operational.
Sensorimotor Stage	First stage in Piaget's theory. Child relies heavily on innate motor responses to stimuli.	Birth to 2 years old.
Preoperational Stage	Second stage in Piaget's theory. Marked by well-developed mental representation and use of language.	2 to 6/7 years of age.
Concrete Operational Stage	Third of Piaget's stages. When a child understands conversation but is still incapable of abstract thought.	7-11 years of age.
Formal Operational Stage	Piaget's final stage of cognitive development. Development of abstract thought.
Temperament	Individual's characteristic manner of or reaction. Assumed to have a strong genetic basis.
Authoritative Parenting	Parent is warm and attentive (good relationship with child), makes reasonable demands and explains and enforces rules, permits child to make decisions, and listens to child's viewpoint.
Authoritarian Parenting	Parent is cold and rejecting (bad relationship), highly demanding, yells/commands/criticizes and relies on punishment, makes most decisions for the child, and rarely listens to the child's viewpoint.
Permissive Parenting	Parent is warm but may spoil the child, makes few or no demands, permits child to make decisions before the child is ready.
Uninvolved Parenting	Emotionally detached/withdrawn, makes few or no demands, lacks interest/expectations for child, and is indifferent to child's decisions and point of view.
Psychosocial Stages	Erikson's theory: eight stages, each defined by major challenges that appear successively across the lifespan, which require an individual to rethink his or her goals and relationships.
Trust vs. Mistrust	Basic sense of security and ability to rely on others vs. Insecurity and anxiety.	0 - 1&1/2 years.
Autonomy vs. Self-Doubt	Perception of self as agent and capable of controlling one's own body/decisions vs. feelings of inadequate self-control or control of events.	1&1/2 - 3 years.
Initiative vs. Guilt	Confidence in oneself as initiator/creator vs. feelings of lack of self-worth.	3 - 6 years.
Competence vs. Inferiority	Social and intellectual adequacy and acceptance by peers vs. lack of self-confidence and feelings of failure.	6 - Puberty.
Identity vs. Role Confusion	Comfortable sense of self, both unique and socially accepted vs. fragmented/shifting/unclear sense of self.	Adolescence
Intimacy vs. Isolation	Capacity for closeness/commitment vs. feelings of loneliness/separation and denial of intimacy needs.	Early Adulthood.
Generativity vs. Stagnation	Focus of concern beyond oneself to family/society/future generations vs. self-indulgent concerns and lack of future orientation.	Middle Adulthood
Ego-Integrity vs. Despair	Sense of wholeness/basic satisfaction with life vs. feelings of futility/disappointment.	Late Adulthood
Stages of Moral Development	Suggested by Lawrence Kohlberg and based on Piaget's view of cognitive development.
Stage 1 of Moral Development	Think only of reward and punishment.
Stage 2 of Moral Development	Reward and punishment, plus an understanding that others have personal perspectives.
Stage 3 of Moral Development	Morals based on seeking social approval.
Stage 4 of Social Development	Seek to maintain social order: rules, laws, respect for authority, etc.
Stage 5 of Social Development	"Social Contract" stage. Rules and laws are flexible and based on societal interpretations.
Stage 6 of Moral Development	Decisions bases on universal principles of conscience.
Five Stages of Death and Dying	Denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance.
Repression	Ego defense mechanism that excludes unacceptable thoughts and feelings from memory.
Denial	Ego defense mechanism that helps avoid a situation by pretending it doesn't exist.
Rationalization	Ego defense mechanism of giving socially acceptable reasons for actions based on seemingly unacceptable motives.
Reaction Formation	Ego defense mechanism of acting in direct opposition to one's true feelings.
Displacement	Ego defense mechanism in which you shift your reaction from its original source to a safer individual or object.
Regression	Ego defense mechanism of adopting immature, juvenile behaviors that were effective ways to deal with stress as children, like crying or throwing things.
Sublimation	Ego defense mechanism of gratifying sexual or aggressive desires in socially acceptable ways like acting or sports.
Projection	Ego defense mechanism of attributing our own unconscious desires to other people.
Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)	Projective test in which subjects make up stories that explain ambiguous pictures.
Personal Unconscious	Essentially the same as the id.	Carl Jung
Collective Unconscious	Instinctive "memories" held by people everywhere.
Neurotic Needs	Signs of neurosis in Karen Horney's theory. 10 normal desires carried to an extreme.
Traits	Stable personality characteristics that are assumed to exist within the individual.
Phenomenal Field	Our psychological reality. Composed of one's perceptions and feelings.
Observational Learning	Learning new responses by watching others' behaviors.	Albert Bandura
Reciprocal Determinism	Process in which cognitions, behavior, and the environment mutually influence each other.	Albert Bandura
Locus of Control	Individual's sense of where his or her life influences originate. Internal or external.	Julian Rotter
Temperament	Basic personality dispositions that are apparent in early childhood and establish the individual's behaviors.
Five-Factor Theory	Trait perspective suggesting personality consists of five dimensions: openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, and neuroticism.
Openness to Experience	Curiosity/independence vs. closed-mindedness.
Conscientiousness	Dependability/perseverance vs. impulsiveness/irresponsibility.
Extraversion	Sociability/self-confidence vs. introversion.
Agreeableness	Likeability/conformity vs. coldness/negativity.
Neuroticism	Anxiety/emotionality vs. emotional stability.
Reliability	Attribute of tests: gives consistent results
Validity	Attribute of tests: measures what the test is used for.
Implicit Personality Theory	Assumptions about personality that are held by people to simplify the task of understanding others.
Fundamental Attribution Error	Assumption that a person's behavior is the result of personality rather than situation.
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)	Numerical score on an intelligence test, originally computed by dividing one's mental age by their chronological age and multiplying by 100.
G Factor	General intelligence.	Charles Spearman
Crystallized Intelligence	Knowledge a person has acquired and access to that knowledge.	Raymond Cattell
Fluid Intelligence	Ability to see complex relationships and solve problems.	Raymond Cattell
Practical Intelligence	Ability to cope with the environment.	AKA Street Smarts. Robert Sternberg.
Analytical Intelligence	Ability to analyze problems and find correct answers.	Robert Sternberg.
Creative Intelligence	Seeing relationships between concepts. Involves creativity and insight.	Robert Sternberg.
Triarchic Theory	Term for Sternberg's theory of intelligence.
Multiple Intelligences	Theory that proposes 7+ types of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, and intrapersonal.
Self-Fulfilling Prophecy	Observations or behaviors that result from expectations.
Heritability	Amount of variability within a group, raises under the same conditions, that can be attributed to genetic differences.
Psychopathology	Pattern of emotions, behaviors, or thoughts inappropriate to the situation and leading to personal distress or the inability to achieve certain goals.	AKA Mental Illness, Mental Disorder, or Psychological Disorder.
Hallucinations	False sensory experiences that may suggest a mental disorder.
Delusions	Extreme disorders of thinking, involving persistent false beliefs.
Medical Model	View that mental disorders are diseases that have physical causes and require specific treatments.
Social-Cognitive-Behavioral Approach	Alternative to the medical model that views psychological disorder from a combination of social, cognitive, and behavioral perspectives.
Psychosis	Disorder involving profound disturbances in perception, rational thinking, or affect (emotion).
Mood Disorders	Abnormal disturbances in emotion or mood.	AKA Affective Disorders.
Major Depression	Form of depression that does not alternate with mania.
Seasonal Affective Disorder (SAD)	Form of depression caused by deprivation of sunlight.
Bipolar Disorder	Mental abnormality involving swings of mood from mania to depression.
Generalized Anxiety Disorder	Psychological problem characterized by persistent and pervasive feelings of anxiety, without an external cause.
Preparedness Hypothesis	Notion that we have an innate tendency, acquired through natural selection, to respond quickly and automatically to stimuli that posed a survival threat to our ancestors.
Somatoform Disorders	Psychological problems appearing in the form of bodily symptoms or physical complaints.
Conversion Disorder	Type of somatoform disorder, marked by paralysis, weakness, or loss of sensation with no discernible physical cost.
Hypochondriasis	Somatoform disorder involving excessive concern about health and disease.
Dissociative Amnesia	Psychologically induced loss of memory for personal information, such as one's identity or residence.
Dissociative Fugue	Same as dissociative amnesia, but often marked by flight from one's home/family/job.	Fugue = Flight
Depersonalization Disorder	Abnormality involving the sensation that the mind and body have separated, as in an "out-of-body" experience.
Dissociative Identity Disorder	Condition in which an individual displays multiple personalities or identities.
Anorexia Nervosa	Eating disorder that involves persistent loss of appetite that endangers an individual's health and stems from emotional or psychological reasons rather than organic causes.
Bulimia Nervosa	Eating disorder characterized by eating binges followed by "purges" induced by vomiting or laxatives. Typically started as a weight-control measure.
Schizophrenia	Psychotic disorder involving distortions in thoughts/perceptions/emotions.	Disorganized, catatonic, paranoid, undifferentiated, and residual are all types of schizophrenia.
Diathesis-Stress Hypothesis	In reference to schizophrenia, the proposal that genetic factors place the individual at risk while environmental stress factors transform this potential into an actual schizophrenic disorder.
Antisocial Personality Disorder	Characterized by a long-standing pattern of irresponsible behavior indicating a lack of conscience and a diminished sense of responsibility to others.
Borderline Personality Disorder	Unstable personality given to impulsive behavior.
Analysis of Transference	Freudian technique of analyzing and interpreting the patient-therapist relationship, based on the assumption that this relationship mirrors unresolved conflicts in the patient's past.
Systematic Desensitization	Behavioral therapy technique in which anxiety is extinguished by exposing the patient to an anxiety-provoking stimulus.
Aversion Therapy	Presenting an attractive stimulus along with aversive stimulation in order to condition revulsion.
Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy	Based on the idea that mental disorders stem from irrational beliefs and behaviors.	Albert Ellis
Antipsychotic Drugs	Medicines that diminish psychotic symptoms, usually by affecting the dopamine pathways in the brain.
Antidepressant Drugs	Medicines that affect depression, usually by affecting serotonin or norepinephrine pathways in the brain.
Lithium Carbonate	Dampens the extreme mood swings of bipolar disorder.
Antianxiety Drugs	Includes barbiturates and benzodiazepines. Diminishes anxiety.
Electroconvulsive Therapy	Treatment used primarily for depression. Application of an electric current to the head, producing a generalized seizure.
Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation	Treatment that involves magnetic stimulation of specific regions of the brain.
Script	Cluster of knowledge about the sequences of events expected in certain settings.
Asch Effect	Form of conformity in which a group majority influences individual judgement.
Stanley Milgram	Performed a test that involved having people "shock" a person repeatedly after being told to by a person perceived as an authority figure.
Diffusion of Responsibility	Dilution or weakening of each group member's obligation to act when responsibility is perceived to be shared.
Reward Theory of Attraction	Social-learning view that says we like those who give us maximum rewards at minimum cost best.
Principle of Proximity	People will make friends with those with whom they have the most contact.
Similarity Principle	People are attracted to those most like themselves.
Matching Hypothesis	People will find friends and mates at their same level of attractiveness.
Expectancy-Value Theory	People decide to pursue relationships based on the potential value of the relationship and the chance of successfully establishing a relationship.
Deindividuation	Group members lose their sense of personal identity and responsibility and the group assumes responsibility for their behavior.
Triangular Theory of Love	Describes love in terms of three components: passion, intimacy, and commitment.	Robert Sternberg